Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Housing Development in Keko Machungwa

Tumpale  Sakijege

doi:10.4236/jep.2019.102018

Tumpale Sakijege

Abstract: In Tanzania 80% of the population live in informal settlements. Most of these settlements are built in areas that are susceptible to extreme weather conditions such as flooding. Such conditions have significantly contributed to the destruction of housing stock and other valuable properties. There is considerable awareness amongst people living in the informal settlements, government representatives and other key stakeholders about the various flood risks affecting informal settlements. Based on this understanding, several attempts to minimize flood risks have been initiated in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, yet these initiatives have largely failed to deliver the desired impacts. This article aims to investigate core reasons for this through a case study of Keko Machungwa Informal settlement in Dar es Salaam City. The study explores the extent to which mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction (DRR) in housing development in informal settlements has been considered and implemented, and recommends measures for improvement. Key methods employed for the research included physical observation, household interviews, mapping, photographing, and in-depth interviews. Overall, the study found that mainstreaming of DRR in housing development was hardly practiced at the household level, as houses were predominantly being built without resistant building materials and supervision of relevant professionals. In order to mainstream DRR in housing development in informal settlements, it is recommended that mainstreaming DRR be embedded in laws and policies, highly vulnerable parts of the settlement be declared protected wetland and that the government direct its efforts towards regulating, controlling and monitoring the housing development sector. That letter can be achieved by emphasizing the use of flood resistant building materials and establishing resilient infrastructures for flood mitigation in every flood prone informal settlement.

Keywords: Disaster, Disaster Risk Reduction, Flooding, Housing, Housing Development, Mainstreaming

Cite this paper: Sakijege, T. (2019) Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Housing Development in Keko Machungwa. Journal of Environmental Protection, 10, 315-336. doi: 10.4236/jep.2019.102018.

References

[1] Sakijege, T., Sartohadi, J., Marfai, M.A., Kassenga, G.R. and Kasala, S.E. (2014) Assessment of Adaptation Strategies to Flooding: A Comparative Study between Informal Settlements of Keko Machungwa in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Sangkrah in Surakarta, Indonesia. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 6, 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v6i1.131

[2] URT (2000) Environmental Management Act [Report]. Government Printers, Dar es Salaam.

[3] URT (1999) The National Land Act No. 4 [Report]. Government Printers, Dar es Salaam.

[4] URT (1997) The National Land Policy [Report]. Government Printers, Dar es Salaam.

[5] URT (2010) Property and Business Formalization Program Experience in Formalization of Squatter Settlements Engaging Citizens in the Process//UNPSA FORUM. New York.

[6] Tas, M., Tas, N., Durak, S. and Atanur, G. (2013) Flood Disaster Vulnerability in Informal Settlements in Bursa, Turkey. Environment and Urbanization, 25, 443-463.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813501134

[7] Nsorfon, I.F. (2015). Exploring Social Vulnerability to Natural Disasters in Urban Informal Settlements—Perspectives from Flooding in the Slums of Lagos, Nigeria [Report]. Universitat zu Koln, Koln.

[8] Kironde, L. (1995) The Evolution of the Urban Land-Use Structure of Dar es Salaam 1890-1990: A Study in the Effects of Land Policy [Report]. University of Nairobi, Nairobi.

[9] Kombe, W.J. and Kreibich, V. (2000) Informal Land Management in Tanzania. SPRING Centre, Faculty of Spatial Plannning, University of Dortmund, Dortmund.

[10] UN-HABITAT (2010) Informal Settlements and Finance in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania [Report]. The United Nations Human Settlements Programme, Nairobi.

[11] Lupala, J., Namangaya, A. and Mbogoro, P. (2013) The Tanzania State of the Cities Report 2013: A Report Prepared under Tanzania Cties Network [Report]. TACINE, Dar es Salaam.

[12] Kyessi, A. and Tumpale, S. (2013) Formalizing Property Rights in Informal Settlements and Its Implications on Poverty Reduction: The Case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In Presentation at the Annual World Bank Conference of Land and Poverty, The World Bank, Washington DC, 8-11.

[13] De Risi, R., et al. (2013) Flood Risk Assessment for Informal Settlements. Natural Hazards, 69, 1003-1032.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0749-0

[14] Wamsler, C. (2007) Bridging the Gaps: Stakeholder-Based Strategies for Risk Reduction and Financing for the Urban Poor. Environment and Urbanization, 19, 115-142.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247807077029

[15] Benson, C. (2009) Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development: Challenges and Experience in the Philippines. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies/The ProVention Consortium, Geneva.

[16] GB Oxfam and Frontiers Development (2013) Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in Urbanization in Bangladesh: A Scoping Study.

[17] Abunyewah, M., Gajendran, T. and Maund, K. (2018) Profiling Informal Settlements for Disaster Risks. Procedia Engineering, 212, 238-245.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2018.01.031

[18] UN Habitat (2006) Analysis Perspective of Pro-Poor Slum Upgrading Frameworks. United Nations Human Settlements Programme, Nairobi.

[19] UN Habitat (2009) Planning for Sustainable Cities: Global Report on Human Settlements. United Nations Human Settlements Programme, London.

[20] Kochtitzky, C.S., Frumkin, H., Rodriguez, R., Dannenberg, A.L., Rayman, J., Rose, K., Kanter, T., et al. (2006) Urban Planning and Public Health at CDC. MMWR Supplements, 55, 34-38.

[21] Kasala, S.E. (2013) Operationalizing Strategic Urban Development Planning: The Case of Dar es Salaam. PhD Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam.

[22] Giddings, S.W. (2007) Housing Challenges and Opportunities in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Housing Coalition, Washington DC.

[23] Carrington, D. (2014) World Population to Hit 11bn in 2100-With 70% Chance of Continuous Rise. The Guardian, 18.

[24] Satterthwaite, D. (2011) What Role for Low-Income Communities in Urban Areas in Disaster Risk Reduction. Documento informativo elaborado para el Informe de evaluación global sobre la reducción del riesgo de desastres.

[25] Githira, D.N. (2016) Growth and Eviction of Informal Settlements in Nairobi. University of Twenty Faculty of Geo-Information and Earth Observation (ITC), Enschede.

[26] Fazli, M. (2016) Factors behind the Growth of Informal Settlements in Kabul.

[27] UNISDR (2009) Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Geneva.

[28] Sakijege, T., Lupala, J. and Sheuya, S. (2012) Flooding, Flood Risks and Coping Strategies in Urban Informal Residential Areas: The Case of Keko Machungwa, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 4, 1-10.
https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v4i1.46

[29] ISDR & RAED (2013) An Overview of Environment and Disaster Risk Reduction in the Arab Region: A Community Perspective.

[30] Isdr, U. (2005) Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. Extract from the Final Report of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (A/CONF. 206/6), Vol. 380, The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Geneva.

[31] UNISDR (2015) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, in United Nations. UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.

[32] RCC (2011) Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction in Housing Sector, RCC Guideline.
http://www.ifrc.org/PageFiles/95743/24665_24665rccguidelinehousingprintervers.pdf

[33] FEMA (2014) The Importance of Building Codes in Earthquake-Prone Communities Fact Sheet. FEMA Report.

[34] Kates, R.W., Colten, C.E., Laska, S. and Leatherman, S.P. (2006) Reconstruction of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina: A Research Perspective. Proceedings of the national Academy of Sciences, 103, 14653-14660.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605726103

[35] WMO & GWP (2013) Urban Flood Risk Management. Associated Programme on Flood Management, Technical Document No. 1, Flood Management Tools Series, WMO & GWP Report.

[36] Carcellar, N., Co, J.C.R. and Hipolito, Z.O. (2011) Addressing Disaster Risk Reduction through Community-Rooted Interventions in the Philippines: Experience of the Homeless People’s Federation of the Philippines. Environment and Urbanization, 23, 365-381.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247811415581

[37] Basher, R. (2013) Science and Technology for Disaster Risk Reduction: A Review of Application and Coordination Needs. UNISDR Report.

[38] Monaghan, M.M. (1979) Dar es Salaam Master Plan.

[39] URT (2004) Environmental Management Act. Government Printers, URT Report, Dar es Salaam.

[40] FEMA (2008) Flood Damage-Resistant Materials Requirements for Buildings Located in Special Flood Hazard Areas in Accordance with the National Flood Insurance Program, in Technical Bulletin. Federal Emergency Management Agency Report, Washington DC.

[41] Simbacement (2016) Production of Sand Cement Blocks.
https://simbacement.co.tz/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/BROCHURES-FOR-BLOCK-MAKING.pdf

[42] URT (2007) Urban Planning Act. Government Printers, URT Report, Dar es Salaam.

[43] Bubeck, P., Botzen, W.J. and Aerts, J.C. (2012) A Review of Risk Perceptions and Other Factors That Influence Flood Mitigation Behavior. Risk Analysis: An International Journal, 32, 1481-1495.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01783.x