Erin L. Pulster^1*, Giffe Johnson², Dave Hollander³, James McCluskey², Raymond Harbison²

Show more
¹ Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, USA.
² College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
³ College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA.
Show less

Abstract: Inhalation and atmospheric pollution studies have focused on particulate matter due to correlations and associations with various morbidities and mortalities. This research analyzed ambient concentrations of inhalable particulate matter (PM₁₀) on the island of Curaçao in order to evaluate through comparative literature analysis and recommended public health guidelines the potential health risks. Available hourly, daily and monthly PM₁₀ measurements were accessed from June 2010 through December 2014 from a local air monitoring station in Willemstad. Mean annual concentrations of PM₁₀ (31 - 122 μg/m³) in Curaçao are among the highest reported globally, demonstrating an increasing trend over time and exceed current public health guidelines recommended by local and international agencies. While the epidemiological evidence is inadequate to infer a causal association between health effects and long-term exposures of the measured PM₁₀ concentrations, the results indicate that emissions controls are not adequate for compliance with international exposure standards.

Keywords: Inhalable Particulate Matter, PM₁₀, Curaçao, Refineries

Cite this paper: Pulster, E. , Johnson, G. , Hollander, D. , McCluskey, J. and Harbison, R. (2018) Assessment of Inhalable Particulate Matter Associated with a Refinery in Curaçao. Journal of Environmental Protection, 9, 1113-1128. doi: 10.4236/jep.2018.910069.

References

[1]   Gotschi, T., Heinrich, J., Sunyer, J. and Künzli, N. (2008) Long-Term Effects of Ambient Air Pollution on Lung Function: A review. Epidemiology, 19, 690-701.
https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e318181650f

[2]   Brook, R.D., et al. (2010) Particulate Matter Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease: An Update to the Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 121, 2331-2378.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181dbece1

[3]   Valavanidis, A., Fiotakis, K. and Vlachogianni, T. (2008) Airborne Particulate Matter and Human Health: Toxicological Assessment and Importance of Size and Composition of Particles for Oxidative Damage and Carcinogenic Mechanisms. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 26, 339-362.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10590500802494538

[4]   Ravindra, K., Mittal, A.K. and Van Grieken, R. (2001) Health Risk Assessment of Urban Suspended Suspended Particulate Matter with Special Reference to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: A Review. Review on Environmental Health, 16, 169-189.
https://doi.org/10.1515/REVEH.2001.16.3.169

[5]   WHO (2005) Air Quality Guidelines Global Update: Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide. Copenhagen.

[6]   WHO (2014) Mortality from Ambient Air Pollution.
http://www.who.int/gho/phe/outdoor_air_pollution/burden_text/en/

[7]   Krewski, D., et al. (2009) Extended Follow-Up and Spatial Analysis of the American Cancer Society Study Linking Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA.

[8]   Bates, D.V. (1992) Health Indices of the Adverse Effects of Air Pollution: The Question of Coherence. Environmental Research, 59, 336-349.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-9351(05)80040-4

[9]   Bates, D.V. (1996) Particulate Air Pollution. Thorax, 51, S3-S8.
https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.51.Suppl_2.S3

[10]   Bates, D.V. (1995) Adverse Health Impacts of Air Pollution—Continuing Problems. Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health, 21, 405-411.
https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.55

[11]   Cui, P., et al. (2014) Ambient Particulate Matter and Lung Cancer Incidence and Mortality: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies. The European Journal of Public Health, 25, 324-329.

[12]   Burnett, R.T., et al. (2014) An Integrated Risk Function for Estimating the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122, 397-403.
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307049

[13]   NRC (2009) Global Sources of Local Pollution: An Assessment of Long-Range Transport of Key Air Pollutants to and from the United States. The National Academies Press, Washington DC, 248.

[14]   DCLP (2014) SEI a Helping Hand for Environmental Requirements Smoc.
http://www.dutchcaribbeanlegalportal.com/news/latest-news/118-sei-a-helping-
hand-for-environmental-requirements-smoc

[15]   Yang, Y., et al. (2013) The Association between Ambient Air Pollution and Daily Mortality in Beijing after the 2008 Olympics: A Time Series Study. PloS ONE, 8, e76759.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076759

[16]   Wang, Y., Eliot, M.N. and Wellenius, G.A. (2014) Short-Term Changes in Ambient Particulate Matter and Risk of Stroke: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Heart Association, 3, e000983.
https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.114.000983

[17]   Hamra, G.B., et al. (2014) Outdoor Particulate Matter Exposure and Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122, 906-911.
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp/1408092

[18]   USEPA (2009) Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter. USEPA, Durham.

[19]   Lai, H.-K., Tsang, H. and Wong, C.-M. (2013) Meta-Analysis of Adverse Health Effects Due to Air Pollution in Chinese Populations. BMC Public Health, 13, 360.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-360

[20]   Park, H.Y., Bae, S. and Hong, Y.-C. (2013) PM10 Exposure and Non-Accidental Mortality in Asian Populations: A Meta-Analysis of Time-Series and Case-Crossover Studies. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, 46, 10-18.
https://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.2013.46.1.10

[21]   Mustafic, H., et al. (2012) Main Air Pollutants and Myocardial Infarction a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 307, 713-721.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.126

[22]   Adamkiewicz, L., Gayer, A., Mucha, D., Badyda, A.J., Dabrowiecki, P. and Grabski, P. (2015) Relative Risk of Lung Obstruction in Relation to PM10 Concentration as Assessed by Pulmonary Function Tests. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 849, 83-91.

[23]   An, X., Tao, Y., Mi, S., Hou, Q. and Sun, Z. (2015) Association between PK10 and Respiratory Hospital Admissions in Different Seasons in Heavily Polluted Lanzhou City. Journal of Environmental Health, 77, 64-71.

[24]   Tao, Y., et al. (2014) Air Pollution and Hospital Admissions for Respiratory Diseases in Lanzhou, China. Environmental Pollution, 185, 196-201.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.035

[25]   Gharehchahi, E., et al. (2013) Health Impact Assessment of Air Pollution in Shiraz, Iran: A Two-Part Study. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 11, 11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-336X-11-11

[26]   Zhang, L.-W., et al. (2014) Long-Term Exposure to High Particulate Matter Pollution and Cardiovascular Mortality: A 12-Year Cohort Study in Four Cities in Northern China. Environment International, 62, 41-47.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2013.09.012

[27]   Willocks, L.J., et al. (2012) Cardiovascular Disease and Air Pollution in Scotland: No Association or Insufficient Data and Study Design? BMC Public Health, 12, 227.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-227

[28]   Liang, W.-M., Wei, H.-Y. and Kuo, H.-W. (2009) Association between Daily Mortality from Respiratory and Cardiovascular Diseases and Air Pollution in Taiwan. Environmental Research, 109, 51-58.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2008.10.002

[29]   Heinrich, J., et al. (2013) Long-Term Exposure to NO2 and PM10 and All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality in a Prospective Cohort of Women. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 70, 179-186.
https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2012-100876

[30]   Puett, R.C., et al. (2009) Chronic Fine and Coarse Particulate Exposure, Mortality, and Coronary Heart Disease in the Nurses’ Health Study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117, 1697-1701.
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900572

[31]   Puett, R.C., et al. (2008) Chronic Particulate Exposure, Mortality, and Coronary Heart Disease in the Nurses’ Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 168, 1161-1168.
https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn232

[32]   Puett, R.C., et al. (2014) Particulate Matter Air Pollution Exposure, Distance to Road, and Incident Lung Cancer in the Nurses’ Health Study Cohort. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122, 926-932.
https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307490

[33]   Beelen, R., et al. (2014) Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution on Natural-Cause Mortality: An Analysis of 22 European Cohorts within the Multicentre ESCAPE Project. The Lancet, 383, 785-795.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62158-3

[34]   Beelen, R., et al. (2014) Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Mortality: An Analysis of 22 European Cohorts. Epidemiology, 25, 368-378.
https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000076

[35]   Zhou, M., Liu, Y., Wang, L., Kuang, X., Xu, X. and Kan, H. (2014) Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality in a Cohort of Chinese Men. Environmental Pollution, 186, 1-6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.11.010

[36]   Atkinson, R.W., Carey, I.M., Kent, A.J., van Staa, T.P., Anderson, H.R. and Cook, D.G. (2013) Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution and Incidence of Cardiovascular Diseases. Epidemiology, 24, 44-53.
https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e318276ccb8

[37]   Cesaroni, G., et al. (2014) Long Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Incidence of Acute Coronary Events: Prospective Cohort Study and Meta-Analysis in 11 European Cohorts from the ESCAPE Project. British Medical Journal, 348, f7412.

[38]   Carey, I.M., Atkinson, R.W., Kent, A.J., van Staa, T., Cook, D.G. and Anderson, H.R. (2013) Mortality Associations with Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution in a National English Cohort. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 187, 1226-1233.
https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201210-1758OC

[39]   Raaschou-Nielsen, O., et al. (2013) Air Pollution and Lung Cancer Incidence in 17 European Cohorts: Prospective Analyses from the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE). The Lancet Oncology, 14, 813-822.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70279-1

[40]   Vineis, P., et al. (2006) Air Pollution and Risk of Lung Cancer in a Prospective Study in Europe. International Journal of Cancer, 119, 169-174.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.21801

[41]   Naess, O., Nafstad, P., Aamodt, G., Claussen, B. and Rosland, P. (2007) Relation between Concentration of Air Pollution and Cause-Specific Mortality: Four-Year Exposures to Nitrogen Dioxide and Particulate Matter Pollutants in 470 Neighborhoods in Oslo, Norway. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165, 435-443.
https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwk016

[42]   McDonnell, W.F., Nishino-Ishikawa, N., Petersen, F.F., Chen, L.H. and Abbey, D.E. (2000) Relationships of Mortality with the Fine and Coarse Fractions of Long-Term Ambient PM10 Concentrations in Nonsmokers. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 10, 427-436.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500095

[43]   Beeson, W.L., Abbey, D.E. and Knutsen, S.F. (1998) Long-Term Concentrations of Ambient Air Pollutants and Incident Lung Cancer in California Adults: Results from the AHSMOG Study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 106, 813-822.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3434125

[44]   Young, I.R., Zieger, S. and Babanin, A.V. (2013) Global Trends in Extreme Wind Speed and Wave Height. Science, 332, 451-455.
https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2013-10021