Development of a Bikeability Index to Assess the Bicycle-Friendliness of Urban Environments
Affiliation(s)
1 Institute of Sport Science, University of Graz, Graz, Austria. 2 UKK Institute, Tampere, Finland.
1 Institute of Sport Science, University of Graz, Graz, Austria. 2 UKK Institute, Tampere, Finland.
ABSTRACT
Background: Cycling as a means of transport contributes to public health in terms of increasing the physical activity behaviour and reducing air pollution. In comparison to walking, cycling-spe cific environmental characteristics have been less investigated. The aim of this study was to develop, based on geographic information systems (GIS) data, a bikeability index for a mid-sized European city, to examine the predictive validity of the index and to visualize the bicycle-friendliness of the city by creating a bikeability map. Methods: Using GIS data, we assessed the environmental characteristics of 278 bicycle trips in the city of Graz, Austria. Characteristics which differed significantly between the actually taken and shortest possible routes were used to form an additive bikeability index and the bikeability map for 100 m × 100 m cells. The relationship between the cycling behaviour and the bikeability index around the home environment was examined to assess the predictive validity of the index. Results: Three environmental components (cycling infrastructure, bicycle pathways and green areas) were positively related, and two components (main roads, and topography) were negatively related to the actually used route. These components formed the bikeability index, which was positively correlated with cycling behaviour (OR: 1.08, 95% CI 1.01 - 1.17). The final outcome is a high-resolution coloured map indicating the degree of bicycle-friendliness in the city of Graz. Conclusion: Mapping based on the bikeability index helps to visualize the bicycle-friendliness of an urban area. Therefore, it should be a useful tool for the planning as well as for the evaluation of the transport environments in cities.
Background: Cycling as a means of transport contributes to public health in terms of increasing the physical activity behaviour and reducing air pollution. In comparison to walking, cycling-spe cific environmental characteristics have been less investigated. The aim of this study was to develop, based on geographic information systems (GIS) data, a bikeability index for a mid-sized European city, to examine the predictive validity of the index and to visualize the bicycle-friendliness of the city by creating a bikeability map. Methods: Using GIS data, we assessed the environmental characteristics of 278 bicycle trips in the city of Graz, Austria. Characteristics which differed significantly between the actually taken and shortest possible routes were used to form an additive bikeability index and the bikeability map for 100 m × 100 m cells. The relationship between the cycling behaviour and the bikeability index around the home environment was examined to assess the predictive validity of the index. Results: Three environmental components (cycling infrastructure, bicycle pathways and green areas) were positively related, and two components (main roads, and topography) were negatively related to the actually used route. These components formed the bikeability index, which was positively correlated with cycling behaviour (OR: 1.08, 95% CI 1.01 - 1.17). The final outcome is a high-resolution coloured map indicating the degree of bicycle-friendliness in the city of Graz. Conclusion: Mapping based on the bikeability index helps to visualize the bicycle-friendliness of an urban area. Therefore, it should be a useful tool for the planning as well as for the evaluation of the transport environments in cities.
Cite this paper
Krenn, P. , Oja, P. and Titze, S. (2015) Development of a Bikeability Index to Assess the Bicycle-Friendliness of Urban Environments. Open Journal of Civil Engineering, 5, 451-459. doi: 10.4236/ojce.2015.54045.
Krenn, P. , Oja, P. and Titze, S. (2015) Development of a Bikeability Index to Assess the Bicycle-Friendliness of Urban Environments. Open Journal of Civil Engineering, 5, 451-459. doi: 10.4236/ojce.2015.54045.
References
[1] Dill, J. and Carr, T. (2003) Bicycle Commuting and Facilities in Major U.S. Cities: If You Build Them, Commuters Will Use Them. Transportation Research: Part B, 1828, 116-123.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1828-14 [2] Wendel-Vos, G.C.W., et al. (2004) Factors of the Physical Environment Associated with Walking and Bicycling. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36, 725-730.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000121955.03461.0A [3] Titze, S., et al. (2008) Association of Built-Environment, Social-Environment and Personal Factors with Bicycling as a Mode of Transportation among Austrian City Dwellers. Preventive Medicine, 47, 252-259.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.02.019 [4] Wahlgren, L., et al. (2012) Exploring Bikeability in a Metropolitan Setting, Stimulating and Hindering Factors in Commuting Route Environments. TBMC Public Health, 12, 168.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-168 [5] Beenackers, M.A., et al. (2012) Taking up Cycling after Residential Relocation, Built Environment Factors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42, 610-615.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.02.021 [6] Krenn, P., Oja, P. and Titze, S. (2013) Route Choices of Transport Cyclists, Comparison of Actually Used and Shortest Routes. IJBNPA, 11, 31. [7] Cervero, R., et al. (2009) Influences of Built Environments on Walking and Cycling, Lessons from Bogota. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 3, 203-226.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15568310802178314 [8] Beenackers, M.A., et al. (2012) Taking up Cycling after Residential Relocation, Built Environment Factors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42, 610-615.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.02.021 [9] Rietveld, P. and Daniel, V. (2004) Determinants of Bicycle Use: Do Municipal Policies Matter? Transportation Research Part A—Policy and Practice, 7, 531-550.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2004.05.003 [10] Parkin, J., et al. (2008) Estimation of the Determinants of Bicycle Mode Share for the Journey to Work Using Census Data. Transportation, 35, 93-109.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11116-007-9137-5 [11] Winters, M., Brauer, M., Setton, E.M. and Teschke, K. (2010) Built Environment Influences on Healthy Transportation Choices, Bicycling versus Driving. Journal of Urban Health, 87, 969-993.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11524-010-9509-6 [12] Vandenbulcke, G., Degraeuwe, B., Meeusen, R. and Panis, L.I. (2011) Cycle Commuting in Belgium, Spatial Determinants and “Re-Cycling” Strategies. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45, 118-137. [13] Titze, S., Giles-Corti, B., Knuiman, M.W., et al. (2010) Associations between Intrapersonal and Neighborhood Environmental Characteristics and Cycling for Transport and Recreation in Adults, Baseline Results from the RESIDE Study. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 7, 423-431. [14] Nelson, A.C. and Allen, D. (1999) If You Build Them, Commuters Will Use Them. Transportation Research: Part B, 1587, 79-83. [15] Winters, M., Davidson, G., Kao, D. and Teschke, K. (2010) Motivators and Deterrents of Bicycling: Comparing Influences on Decisions to Ride. Transportation, 38, 153-168.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11116-010-9284-y [16] Emery, J., Crump, C. and Bors, P. (2003) Reliability and Validity of Two Instruments Designed to Assess the Walking and Bicycling Suitability of Sidewalks and Roads. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18, 38-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-18.1.38 [17] Frank, L.D., Schmid, T.L., Sallis, J.F., et al. (2005) Linking Objectively Measured Physical Activity with Objectively Measured Urban Form: Findings from SMARTRAQ. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28, 117-125.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.11.001 [18] Hall, P. and Richard, A. (2010) HPE’s Walkability Index—Quantifying the Pedestrian Experience. Proceedings of the ITE 2010 Technical Conference and Exhibit, Meeting Transportation’s 21st Century Challenges, Savannah, 14-17 March 2010, 26. [19] Owen, N., Cerin, E., Leslie, E., et al. (2007) Neighborhood Walkability and the Walking Behavior of Australian Adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 387-395.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.07.025 [20] Van Dyck, D., Cardon, G., Deforche, B., et al. (2010) Neighborhood Walkability and Sedentary Time in Belgian Adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 39, 25-32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2010.03.004 [21] Giles-Corti, B., Wood, G., Pikora, T., et al. (2011) School Site and the Potential to Walk to School: The Impact of Street Connectivity and Traffic Exposure in School Neighborhoods. Health Place, 17, 545-550.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.12.011 [22] Harkey, D., et al. (1998) Development of the Bicycle Compatibility Index: A Level of Service Concept. Final Report, University of North Carolina, North Carolina. [23] Van Dyck, D., Cerin, E., Conway, T.L., et al. (2012) Perceived Neighborhood Environmental Attributes Associated with Adults’ Transport-Related Walking and Cycling: Findings from the USA, Australia and Belgium. International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-70 [24] Winters, M., Brauer, M., Setton, E.M. and Teschke, K. (2013) Mapping Bikeability: A Spatial Tool to Support Sustainable Travel. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 40, 865-883.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/b38185 [25] Broach, J., Dill, J. and Gliebe, J. (2012) Where Do Cyclists Ride? A Route Choice Model Developed with Revealed Preference GPS Data. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 46, 1730-1740.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2012.07.005 [26] Aultman-Hall, L. (1997) Analysis of Bicycle Commuter Routes Using Geographic Information Systems: Implications for Bicycle Planning. Transportation Research Record, 1578, 102-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1578-13 [27] Dill, J. (2009) Bicycling for Transportation and Health: The Role of Infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy, 30, 95-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jphp.2008.56 [28] Charreire, H., Weber, C., Chaix, B., et al. (2012) Identifying Built Environmental Patterns Using Cluster Analysis and GIS: Relationships with Walking, Cycling and Body Mass Index in French Adults. International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 59.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-59
[1] Dill, J. and Carr, T. (2003) Bicycle Commuting and Facilities in Major U.S. Cities: If You Build Them, Commuters Will Use Them. Transportation Research: Part B, 1828, 116-123.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1828-14 [2] Wendel-Vos, G.C.W., et al. (2004) Factors of the Physical Environment Associated with Walking and Bicycling. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36, 725-730.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000121955.03461.0A [3] Titze, S., et al. (2008) Association of Built-Environment, Social-Environment and Personal Factors with Bicycling as a Mode of Transportation among Austrian City Dwellers. Preventive Medicine, 47, 252-259.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.02.019 [4] Wahlgren, L., et al. (2012) Exploring Bikeability in a Metropolitan Setting, Stimulating and Hindering Factors in Commuting Route Environments. TBMC Public Health, 12, 168.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-168 [5] Beenackers, M.A., et al. (2012) Taking up Cycling after Residential Relocation, Built Environment Factors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42, 610-615.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.02.021 [6] Krenn, P., Oja, P. and Titze, S. (2013) Route Choices of Transport Cyclists, Comparison of Actually Used and Shortest Routes. IJBNPA, 11, 31. [7] Cervero, R., et al. (2009) Influences of Built Environments on Walking and Cycling, Lessons from Bogota. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 3, 203-226.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15568310802178314 [8] Beenackers, M.A., et al. (2012) Taking up Cycling after Residential Relocation, Built Environment Factors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42, 610-615.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.02.021 [9] Rietveld, P. and Daniel, V. (2004) Determinants of Bicycle Use: Do Municipal Policies Matter? Transportation Research Part A—Policy and Practice, 7, 531-550.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2004.05.003 [10] Parkin, J., et al. (2008) Estimation of the Determinants of Bicycle Mode Share for the Journey to Work Using Census Data. Transportation, 35, 93-109.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11116-007-9137-5 [11] Winters, M., Brauer, M., Setton, E.M. and Teschke, K. (2010) Built Environment Influences on Healthy Transportation Choices, Bicycling versus Driving. Journal of Urban Health, 87, 969-993.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11524-010-9509-6 [12] Vandenbulcke, G., Degraeuwe, B., Meeusen, R. and Panis, L.I. (2011) Cycle Commuting in Belgium, Spatial Determinants and “Re-Cycling” Strategies. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45, 118-137. [13] Titze, S., Giles-Corti, B., Knuiman, M.W., et al. (2010) Associations between Intrapersonal and Neighborhood Environmental Characteristics and Cycling for Transport and Recreation in Adults, Baseline Results from the RESIDE Study. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 7, 423-431. [14] Nelson, A.C. and Allen, D. (1999) If You Build Them, Commuters Will Use Them. Transportation Research: Part B, 1587, 79-83. [15] Winters, M., Davidson, G., Kao, D. and Teschke, K. (2010) Motivators and Deterrents of Bicycling: Comparing Influences on Decisions to Ride. Transportation, 38, 153-168.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11116-010-9284-y [16] Emery, J., Crump, C. and Bors, P. (2003) Reliability and Validity of Two Instruments Designed to Assess the Walking and Bicycling Suitability of Sidewalks and Roads. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18, 38-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-18.1.38 [17] Frank, L.D., Schmid, T.L., Sallis, J.F., et al. (2005) Linking Objectively Measured Physical Activity with Objectively Measured Urban Form: Findings from SMARTRAQ. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28, 117-125.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.11.001 [18] Hall, P. and Richard, A. (2010) HPE’s Walkability Index—Quantifying the Pedestrian Experience. Proceedings of the ITE 2010 Technical Conference and Exhibit, Meeting Transportation’s 21st Century Challenges, Savannah, 14-17 March 2010, 26. [19] Owen, N., Cerin, E., Leslie, E., et al. (2007) Neighborhood Walkability and the Walking Behavior of Australian Adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 387-395.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.07.025 [20] Van Dyck, D., Cardon, G., Deforche, B., et al. (2010) Neighborhood Walkability and Sedentary Time in Belgian Adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 39, 25-32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2010.03.004 [21] Giles-Corti, B., Wood, G., Pikora, T., et al. (2011) School Site and the Potential to Walk to School: The Impact of Street Connectivity and Traffic Exposure in School Neighborhoods. Health Place, 17, 545-550.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.12.011 [22] Harkey, D., et al. (1998) Development of the Bicycle Compatibility Index: A Level of Service Concept. Final Report, University of North Carolina, North Carolina. [23] Van Dyck, D., Cerin, E., Conway, T.L., et al. (2012) Perceived Neighborhood Environmental Attributes Associated with Adults’ Transport-Related Walking and Cycling: Findings from the USA, Australia and Belgium. International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-70 [24] Winters, M., Brauer, M., Setton, E.M. and Teschke, K. (2013) Mapping Bikeability: A Spatial Tool to Support Sustainable Travel. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 40, 865-883.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/b38185 [25] Broach, J., Dill, J. and Gliebe, J. (2012) Where Do Cyclists Ride? A Route Choice Model Developed with Revealed Preference GPS Data. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 46, 1730-1740.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2012.07.005 [26] Aultman-Hall, L. (1997) Analysis of Bicycle Commuter Routes Using Geographic Information Systems: Implications for Bicycle Planning. Transportation Research Record, 1578, 102-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1578-13 [27] Dill, J. (2009) Bicycling for Transportation and Health: The Role of Infrastructure. Journal of Public Health Policy, 30, 95-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jphp.2008.56 [28] Charreire, H., Weber, C., Chaix, B., et al. (2012) Identifying Built Environmental Patterns Using Cluster Analysis and GIS: Relationships with Walking, Cycling and Body Mass Index in French Adults. International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 59.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-59