Prospect of Fuelwood Plantations for Marginal Small Tea Farmers: A Case Study in Matara and Badulla Districts, Sri Lanka
Affiliation(s)
1 Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka. 2 Department of Global Agricultural Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. 3 School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
1 Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka. 2 Department of Global Agricultural Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. 3 School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.
ABSTRACT
This study demonstrates the importance of conversion of tea farms in marginal land to fuelwood plantation by analyzing the current biophysical, economic and institutional pros and cons of each land uses for marginal small tea plantation holders (MSTH). The study is based on household survey and field investigation conducted in Matara and Badulla Districts of Sri Lanka. Both qualitative and quantitative data on important biophysical, economic and institutional factors was collected from a total of 81 MSTH, 50 from Matara and 31 from Badulla, and fuelwood consuming industries within 20 km of the study area. The result showed that MSTH are facing biophysical and economic problems that are forcing them to leave portion of their tea planation land uncultivated. With ongoing demand increase for fuelwood, presence of tree species already adaptable to the area and favorable property right condition, conversion of the existing marginal land to fuelwood plantation is a viable way to sustainably manage the MSTH farmland. This will also contribute to tackle environmental disasters the area is frequently facing due to abandoning of the marginal tea plantation land.
This study demonstrates the importance of conversion of tea farms in marginal land to fuelwood plantation by analyzing the current biophysical, economic and institutional pros and cons of each land uses for marginal small tea plantation holders (MSTH). The study is based on household survey and field investigation conducted in Matara and Badulla Districts of Sri Lanka. Both qualitative and quantitative data on important biophysical, economic and institutional factors was collected from a total of 81 MSTH, 50 from Matara and 31 from Badulla, and fuelwood consuming industries within 20 km of the study area. The result showed that MSTH are facing biophysical and economic problems that are forcing them to leave portion of their tea planation land uncultivated. With ongoing demand increase for fuelwood, presence of tree species already adaptable to the area and favorable property right condition, conversion of the existing marginal land to fuelwood plantation is a viable way to sustainably manage the MSTH farmland. This will also contribute to tackle environmental disasters the area is frequently facing due to abandoning of the marginal tea plantation land.
Cite this paper
Plaihakkara, I. , Mohammed, A. , Shivakoti, G. and Inoue, M. (2015) Prospect of Fuelwood Plantations for Marginal Small Tea Farmers: A Case Study in Matara and Badulla Districts, Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, 6, 566-576. doi: 10.4236/nr.2015.612054.
Plaihakkara, I. , Mohammed, A. , Shivakoti, G. and Inoue, M. (2015) Prospect of Fuelwood Plantations for Marginal Small Tea Farmers: A Case Study in Matara and Badulla Districts, Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, 6, 566-576. doi: 10.4236/nr.2015.612054.
References
[1] Timmer, C.P. (2002) Handbook of Agricultural Economics Chapter 29. Agriculture and Economic Development, 2, 1487-1546. [2] Garnett, T., Appleby, M.C., Balmford, A. and Bateman, I.J. (2013) Sustainable Intensification in Agriculture: Premises and Policies. Science, 341, 33-34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1234485 [3] Tscharntke, T., Clough, Y., Wanger, T.C., Jaxckson, L., Motzke, I., Perfecto, I., Vandermeer, J. and Whitbread, A. (2012) Global Food Security, Biodiversity Conservation and the Future of Agricultural Intensification. Journal of Biological Conservation, 151, 53-59. [4] Gelfand, I., Sahajpal, R., Zhang, X., Izaurralde, R.C., Gross, K.L. and Robertson, G.P. (2013) Sustainable Bioenergy Production from Marginal Lands in the US Midwest. Nature, 493, 514-517. [5] Plieninger, T. and Gaertner, M. (2011) Harnessing Degraded Lands for Biodiversity Conservation. Journal of Nature Conservation, 19, 18-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2010.04.001 [6] Ranasinghe, D.M.H.S.K. (2012) Climate Change Mitigation, Sri Lankas Perspective. Proceedings of International Forestry and Environment Symposium, 15, 290-296. [7] Peiris, G.H. (1978) Land Reform and Agrarian Change in Sri Lanka. Journal of Modern Asian Studies, 12, 611-628.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X0000634X [8] Palihakkara, I.R., Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2015) Current Livelihood Condition of and Futurity of Tea Farming for Marginal Small Tea Farm Holders (MSTH) of Sri Lanka: Case Study from Badulla and Matara District. Journal of Environment and Natural Research, 5, 11-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/enrr.v5n1p11 [9] Dissanayake, D.R.R.W., Udugama, J.M.M. and Jayasinghe-Mudalige, U.K. (2013). Development of an Alternative Microfinance Scheme to Finance in the Tea Small Holding Sector: A Success Story. Journal of Food and Agriculture, 3, 31-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/jfa.v3i1-2.5168 [10] Danso-Wiredu, E.Y. (2011) Mobility and Access for Off-Road Rural Farmers in West-Akim District Ghana. Journal of Geography, 3, 230-249. [11] Wiggins, S. and Proctor, S. (2001) How Special Are Rural Areas? The Economic Implications of Rural Development. Development Policy Review, 19, 427-436.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-7679.00142 [12] Perera, K.K.C.K., Rathnasiri, P.G., Senarath, S.A.S., Sugathapala, A.G.T., Bhattacharya, S.C. and Salam, P.A. (2005) Assessment of Sustainable Energy Potential of Non-Plantation Biomass Resources in Sri Lanka. Journal of Biomass and Bioenergy, 29, 199-213.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.03.008 [13] Haskoning (1989) Energy Conservation in the Tea Industry of Sri Lanka. Royal Dutch Consulting Engineers and Architects. [14] Jayah, T.H. (2001) The Potential for Wood Gasifiers for Tea Drying in Sri Lanka. International Energy Journal, 2, 85-93. [15] Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2013) Forest-Dependent Communities’ Livelihood in Decentralized Forest Governance Policy Epoch: Case Study from West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia. Journal of Natural Resource Policy Research, 5, 49-66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19390459.2013.797153 [16] Sherbinin, A., Vanwey, L.K. McSweeney, K. Aggarawal, R., Barbieri, A., Henry, S., Hunter, L.M. and Twine, W. (2008) Rural Household Demographics, Livelihoods and the Environment. Global Environmental Change, 18, 38-53.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2007.05.005 [17] Humble, R. (1990) Decreasing Extent of Tea Plantations. A Chance for Agricultural Diversification or Ecological Threat. Sri Lanka Journal of Tea Science, 59, 65-81 [18] Campbell, J.E., Lobell, D.B. and Genova, R.C. (2008) The Global Potential of Bioenergy on Abandoned Agriculture Lands. Environmental Science and Technology, 42, 5791-5794.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es800052w [19] Arnold, M. and Persson, R. (2003) Reassessing the Fuelwood Situation in Developing Countries. International Forestry Review, 5, 379-383.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1505/IFOR.5.4.379.22660 [20] Yao, C.S., Chen, C.Y. and Li, M. (2012) Analysis of Rural Residential Energy Consumption and Corresponding Carbon Emissions in China. Energy Policy, 41, 445-450.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.005 [21] Farrel, A.E., Plevin, R.J., Turner, B.T., Jones, A.D., Hare, M.O. and Kammen, D.M. (2006) Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals. Science, 311, 506-508.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1121416 [22] Groom, M.J., Gray, E.M. and Townsend, P.A. (2008) Biofuels and Biodiversity: Principles for Creating Better Policies for Biofuel Production. Conservation Biology, 22, 602-609.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00879.x [23] Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2012) Explaining Disparity in Outcome from Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM): A Case Study in Chilimo Forest, Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 55, 1248-1267.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2011.640171 [24] Ribot, J.C. (2002) Democratic Decentralization of Natural Resource: Institutionalizing Popular Participation. World Resource Institute, Washington DC. [25] Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2013) Linking Outputs and Outcomes from Devolved Forest Governance Using a Modified Actor-Power-Accountability Framework (MAPAF): Case Study from Chilimo Forest, Ethiopia. Forest Policy and Economics, 39, 21-31.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2013.11.005 [26] Tatsuji, K. and Keiji, O. (2007) Biofuels Policies in Asian Countries: Impact of the Expanded Biofuels Programs on World Agricultural Markets. Journal of Agricultural & Food Industrial Organization, 5, 15-42. [27] Hany, E.I.K., Zhang, H., Zhang, P. and Mosandi, R. (2013) Soil Erosion and Surface Runoff on Different Vegetation Covers and Slope Gradients: A Field Experiment in Southern Shaanxi Province, China. CATENA, 105, 1-10.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.12.012 [28] Newman, S.M. (1985) A Survey of Intercultural Practices and Research in Sri Lanka. Journal of Agroforestry Systems, 3, 25-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00045736 [29] Egeru, A., Kateregga, E. and Majaliwa, G.J.M. (2014) Coping with Firewood Scarcity in Soroti District of Eastern Uganda. Open Journal of Forestry, 4, 70-74.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojf.2014.41011 [30] De Silva, W.C.A. (1994) Status Review of Energy Utilization by the Tea Industry in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Journal of Tea Science, 63, 46-58.
[1] Timmer, C.P. (2002) Handbook of Agricultural Economics Chapter 29. Agriculture and Economic Development, 2, 1487-1546. [2] Garnett, T., Appleby, M.C., Balmford, A. and Bateman, I.J. (2013) Sustainable Intensification in Agriculture: Premises and Policies. Science, 341, 33-34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1234485 [3] Tscharntke, T., Clough, Y., Wanger, T.C., Jaxckson, L., Motzke, I., Perfecto, I., Vandermeer, J. and Whitbread, A. (2012) Global Food Security, Biodiversity Conservation and the Future of Agricultural Intensification. Journal of Biological Conservation, 151, 53-59. [4] Gelfand, I., Sahajpal, R., Zhang, X., Izaurralde, R.C., Gross, K.L. and Robertson, G.P. (2013) Sustainable Bioenergy Production from Marginal Lands in the US Midwest. Nature, 493, 514-517. [5] Plieninger, T. and Gaertner, M. (2011) Harnessing Degraded Lands for Biodiversity Conservation. Journal of Nature Conservation, 19, 18-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2010.04.001 [6] Ranasinghe, D.M.H.S.K. (2012) Climate Change Mitigation, Sri Lankas Perspective. Proceedings of International Forestry and Environment Symposium, 15, 290-296. [7] Peiris, G.H. (1978) Land Reform and Agrarian Change in Sri Lanka. Journal of Modern Asian Studies, 12, 611-628.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X0000634X [8] Palihakkara, I.R., Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2015) Current Livelihood Condition of and Futurity of Tea Farming for Marginal Small Tea Farm Holders (MSTH) of Sri Lanka: Case Study from Badulla and Matara District. Journal of Environment and Natural Research, 5, 11-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/enrr.v5n1p11 [9] Dissanayake, D.R.R.W., Udugama, J.M.M. and Jayasinghe-Mudalige, U.K. (2013). Development of an Alternative Microfinance Scheme to Finance in the Tea Small Holding Sector: A Success Story. Journal of Food and Agriculture, 3, 31-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/jfa.v3i1-2.5168 [10] Danso-Wiredu, E.Y. (2011) Mobility and Access for Off-Road Rural Farmers in West-Akim District Ghana. Journal of Geography, 3, 230-249. [11] Wiggins, S. and Proctor, S. (2001) How Special Are Rural Areas? The Economic Implications of Rural Development. Development Policy Review, 19, 427-436.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-7679.00142 [12] Perera, K.K.C.K., Rathnasiri, P.G., Senarath, S.A.S., Sugathapala, A.G.T., Bhattacharya, S.C. and Salam, P.A. (2005) Assessment of Sustainable Energy Potential of Non-Plantation Biomass Resources in Sri Lanka. Journal of Biomass and Bioenergy, 29, 199-213.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.03.008 [13] Haskoning (1989) Energy Conservation in the Tea Industry of Sri Lanka. Royal Dutch Consulting Engineers and Architects. [14] Jayah, T.H. (2001) The Potential for Wood Gasifiers for Tea Drying in Sri Lanka. International Energy Journal, 2, 85-93. [15] Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2013) Forest-Dependent Communities’ Livelihood in Decentralized Forest Governance Policy Epoch: Case Study from West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia. Journal of Natural Resource Policy Research, 5, 49-66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19390459.2013.797153 [16] Sherbinin, A., Vanwey, L.K. McSweeney, K. Aggarawal, R., Barbieri, A., Henry, S., Hunter, L.M. and Twine, W. (2008) Rural Household Demographics, Livelihoods and the Environment. Global Environmental Change, 18, 38-53.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2007.05.005 [17] Humble, R. (1990) Decreasing Extent of Tea Plantations. A Chance for Agricultural Diversification or Ecological Threat. Sri Lanka Journal of Tea Science, 59, 65-81 [18] Campbell, J.E., Lobell, D.B. and Genova, R.C. (2008) The Global Potential of Bioenergy on Abandoned Agriculture Lands. Environmental Science and Technology, 42, 5791-5794.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es800052w [19] Arnold, M. and Persson, R. (2003) Reassessing the Fuelwood Situation in Developing Countries. International Forestry Review, 5, 379-383.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1505/IFOR.5.4.379.22660 [20] Yao, C.S., Chen, C.Y. and Li, M. (2012) Analysis of Rural Residential Energy Consumption and Corresponding Carbon Emissions in China. Energy Policy, 41, 445-450.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.005 [21] Farrel, A.E., Plevin, R.J., Turner, B.T., Jones, A.D., Hare, M.O. and Kammen, D.M. (2006) Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals. Science, 311, 506-508.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1121416 [22] Groom, M.J., Gray, E.M. and Townsend, P.A. (2008) Biofuels and Biodiversity: Principles for Creating Better Policies for Biofuel Production. Conservation Biology, 22, 602-609.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00879.x [23] Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2012) Explaining Disparity in Outcome from Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM): A Case Study in Chilimo Forest, Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 55, 1248-1267.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2011.640171 [24] Ribot, J.C. (2002) Democratic Decentralization of Natural Resource: Institutionalizing Popular Participation. World Resource Institute, Washington DC. [25] Mohammed, A.J. and Inoue, M. (2013) Linking Outputs and Outcomes from Devolved Forest Governance Using a Modified Actor-Power-Accountability Framework (MAPAF): Case Study from Chilimo Forest, Ethiopia. Forest Policy and Economics, 39, 21-31.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2013.11.005 [26] Tatsuji, K. and Keiji, O. (2007) Biofuels Policies in Asian Countries: Impact of the Expanded Biofuels Programs on World Agricultural Markets. Journal of Agricultural & Food Industrial Organization, 5, 15-42. [27] Hany, E.I.K., Zhang, H., Zhang, P. and Mosandi, R. (2013) Soil Erosion and Surface Runoff on Different Vegetation Covers and Slope Gradients: A Field Experiment in Southern Shaanxi Province, China. CATENA, 105, 1-10.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2012.12.012 [28] Newman, S.M. (1985) A Survey of Intercultural Practices and Research in Sri Lanka. Journal of Agroforestry Systems, 3, 25-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00045736 [29] Egeru, A., Kateregga, E. and Majaliwa, G.J.M. (2014) Coping with Firewood Scarcity in Soroti District of Eastern Uganda. Open Journal of Forestry, 4, 70-74.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojf.2014.41011 [30] De Silva, W.C.A. (1994) Status Review of Energy Utilization by the Tea Industry in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Journal of Tea Science, 63, 46-58.