Modelling the Violation of Restrictions Pertaining to Deforestation in a Given Land Right
Affiliation(s)
Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
This paper develops a model that could be used to visualize and predict the violation of restrictions in a given forest. The violation of restriction in this case is assumed to be the difference in areal extent between two forest cover scenes with time; termed “deforestation”. It analyses the relationship in forest cover changes overtime in Ganye Forest Reserve and Glide Cross Country Farm in Adamawa state, Nigeria. Cadastral maps of the forest reserve and farmland were used as the base maps, while the satellite images served as the spatio-temporal data. Landsat ETM+ images of 2003, 2008 and 2013 were used to identify, determine and estimate the violation of restrictions. The result shows that the violation of restrictions could be reliably determined for both the forest reserve and farmland and forecast made in order to predict future occurrence. It also revealed a continuous deforestation in the forest reserve, while in the farmland regeneration of forest stock was noticed. This information is very vital for forest management, planning and decision making in a viable land administration domain.
This paper develops a model that could be used to visualize and predict the violation of restrictions in a given forest. The violation of restriction in this case is assumed to be the difference in areal extent between two forest cover scenes with time; termed “deforestation”. It analyses the relationship in forest cover changes overtime in Ganye Forest Reserve and Glide Cross Country Farm in Adamawa state, Nigeria. Cadastral maps of the forest reserve and farmland were used as the base maps, while the satellite images served as the spatio-temporal data. Landsat ETM+ images of 2003, 2008 and 2013 were used to identify, determine and estimate the violation of restrictions. The result shows that the violation of restrictions could be reliably determined for both the forest reserve and farmland and forecast made in order to predict future occurrence. It also revealed a continuous deforestation in the forest reserve, while in the farmland regeneration of forest stock was noticed. This information is very vital for forest management, planning and decision making in a viable land administration domain.
Cite this paper
Tumba, A. and Ariff, S. (2015) Modelling the Violation of Restrictions Pertaining to Deforestation in a Given Land Right. Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 1219-1235. doi: 10.4236/jep.2015.611108.
Tumba, A. and Ariff, S. (2015) Modelling the Violation of Restrictions Pertaining to Deforestation in a Given Land Right. Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 1219-1235. doi: 10.4236/jep.2015.611108.
References
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http://vh-gfc.dpi.nl/img/userpics/File/UnderlyingCauses/Bangladesh-Report-Underlying-Causes-Workshops.pdf [5] Chan, S. and Sasaki, N. (2014) Assessment of Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Phnom Tbeng Forest Based on Socio-Economic Surveys. Journal of Environmental Protection, 5 1641-1653.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2014.517155 [6] Bregt, A., Crompvoets, J., De Man, E. and Grus, L. (2009) Challenges in Spatial Data Infrastructure Research: A Role for Transdisciplinarity? GSDI 11 Spatial Data Infrastructure Convergence: Building SDI Bridges to Address Global Challenges, Rotterdam, 15-19 June 2009. [7] Craglia, M., De Bie, K., Jackson, D., Pesaresi, M., Remetey-Fülöpp, G., Wang, C., Annoni, A., Bian, L., Campbell, F., Ehlers, M., Van Genderen, J., Goodchild, M., Guo, H., Lewis, A., Simpson, R., Skidmore, A. and Woodgate, P. (2012) Digital Earth 2020: Towards the Vision for the Next Decade. International Journal of Digital Earth, 5, 4-21.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.02.004 [9] Kalantari, M., Rajabifard, A., Wallace, J. and Williamson, I. (2008) Spatially Referenced Legal Property Objects. Land Use Policy, 25, 173-181.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.04.004 [10] Aljaber, S., Ghosh, A.K. and Mahmud, M.S. (2014) Using Time Series of Satellite Images to Detect Vegetation Cover Change in Dhaka City. Journal of Geographic Information System, 6, 653-663.
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http://www.itto.int/files/itto_project_db_input/2980/Project/RED_PD_029_09_Rev%201_F_ProjectDocument_Final.pdf [13] FAO (2010) Global Forest Land-Use Change from 1990 to 2010: An Update to a Global Remote Sensing Survey of Forests.
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http://www.worldpreservationfoundation.org/blog/news/deforestation-statistics/#.U7USu7G8TZc [15] Portillo-Quintero, C.A., Sanchez, A.M., Valbuena, C.A., Gonzalez, Y.Y. and Larreal, J.T. (2012) Forest Cover and Deforestation Patterns in the Northern Andes (Lake Maracaibo Basin): A Synoptic Assessment Using Modis and Landsat Imagery. Applied Geography, 35, 152-163.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.06.015 [16] Buizer, M., Humphreys, D. and De Jong, W. (2014) Climate Change and Deforestation: The Evolution of an Intersecting Policy Domain. Environmental Science & Policy, 35, 1-11.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.09.012 [19] Overmars, K.P., Stehfest, E., Tabeau, A., Van Meijl, H., Beltrán, A.M. and Kram, T. (2014) Estimating the Opportunity Costs of Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions Via Avoided Deforestation, Using Integrated Assessment Modelling. Land Use Policy, 41, 45-60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.04.015 [20] Araujo, C., Bonjean, C.A., Combes, J.-L., Motel, P.C. and Reis, E.J. (2010) Does Land Tenure Insecurity Drive Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon?
http://www.cerdi.org/uploads/pagePerso/28/2010.13.pdf [21] Robinson, B.E., Holland, M.B. and Naughton-Treves, L. (2011) Does Secure Land Tenure Save Forests? A Review of the Relationship between Land Tenure and Tropical Deforestation. Working Paper No. 7. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen.
http://www.ccafs.cgiar.org [22] Sunderlin, W.D., Larson, A.M., Duchelle, A.E., Resosudarmo, I.A.P., Huynh, T.B., Awono, A. and Dokken, T. (2014) How Are REDD+ Proponents Addressing Tenure Problems? Evidence from Brazil, Cameroon, Tanzania, Indonesia, and Vietnam. World Development, 55, 37-52.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.013 [23] USAID (2011) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Ecuador.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Ecuador_Profile.pdf [24] Ribeiro, C.A.A.S., Soares, V.P., Gleriani, J.M., Chaves, M.D.á., Lorenzon, A.S., Barros, K.D.O., Costa, F.R., Marcatti, G.E., Castro, N.L.M.D., Domingues, G.F. and Oliveira, J.D.C. (2013) Brazilian Forest Code: An Intriguing Framework for Designing Worldwide Protected Areas.
http://www.earsel.org/symposia/2013-symposium-Matera/pdf_proceedings/EARSeL-Symposium-2013_1_1_ribeiro.pdf [25] USAID (2012) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Brazil.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Brazil_Profile.pdf [26] Pacheco, P. (2005) Law Compliance: Bolivia Case Study.
http://www.fao.org/forestry/19583-06647b501b992f13fa80edbbb8942712c.pdf [27] USAID (2014) Property Rights and Resource Governace in Bolivia.
http://www.usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Bolivia_Profile.pdf [28] USAID (2010) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Thailand.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Thailand_Profile.pdf [29] NFAM (2006) Laws of Malaysia: National Forestry Act 1984.
http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%207/Act%20313.pdf [30] Wright, G. (2011) Indegenous People and Customary Land Ownership under Domestic Redd+ Frameworks: A Case Study of Indonesia. Law, Environment and Development Journal, 7, 117-130. [31] USAID (2012) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Indonesia.
http://www.usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Indonesia_Profile_0.pdf [32] Abdulai, A., Owusu, V. and Goetz, R. (2011) Land Tenure Differences and Investment in Land Improvement Measures: Theoretical and Empirical Analyses. Journal of Development Economics, 96, 66-78.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.08.002 [33] Counsel, S. (2006) Forest Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo: An Ngo Perspective.
http://www.fern.org/sites/fern.org/files/media/documents/document_3663_3664.pdf [34] USAID (2010) PropertyRights and Resouce Governance in Democratic Republic of Congo.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/democratic-republic-of-congo [35] Boakye, K.A. and Baffoe, K.A. (2006) Trends in Forest Ownership, Forest Resource Tenure and Institutional Arrangements: Resource Management Support Centre, Forestry Commission of Ghana.
http://www.fao.org/forestry/12505-01d2e95c6b96016463fe58818c7e9c29d.pdf [36] USAID (2010) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Nigeria.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Nigeria_Profile.pdf [37] USAID (2012) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Ghana.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Ghana_Profile_0.pdf [38] GGSLN (1983) A Law for the Preservation and Control of Forests. Gongola State Law of Nigeria, CAP, 56. [39] RRI (2015) Nigeria: Rights and Resources Initiatives.
http://www.rightsandresources.org/documents/files/doc_4690.pdf [40] Lam, M.K., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T. and Mohamed, A.R. (2009) Malaysian Palm Oil: Surviving the Food versus Fuel Dispute for a Sustainable Future. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13, 1456-1464.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2008.09.009 [41] Goodchild, M.F. and Glennon, J.A. (2010) Crowdsourcing Geographic Information for Disaster Response: A Research Frontier. International Journal of Digital Earth, 3, 231-241.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17538941003759255 [42] Jokar Arsanjani, J., Helbich, M., Bakillah, M. and Loos, L. (2015) The Emergence and Evolution of OpenStreetMap: A Cellular Automata Approach. International Journal of Digital Earth, 8, 76-90. [43] Noordegaaf, J., Barthalomew, A. and Eveleigh, A. (2014) Modeling Crowdsourcing for Cultural Heritage. MW2014: Museums and the Web 2014.
http://mw2014.museumsandtheweb.com/paper/modeling-crowdsourcing-for-cultural- [44] Tulloch, D. (2014) Crowdsourcing Geographic Knowledge: Volunteered Geographic Information (Vgi) in Theory and Practice. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 28, 847-849.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13658816.2013.873440 [45] EROS (2003) Slc-Off Scientific Usability: Preliminary Assessment of the Value of Landsat 7 Etm+ Data Following Scan Line Corrector Malfunction.
http://landsat.usgs.gov/documents/SLC_off_Scientific_Usability.pdf [46] Tappan, G. and Cushing, M. (2004) Use of SLC-Off Landsat Image Data for Monitoring Land Use/Land Cover Trends in West Africa.
http://landsat.usgs.gov/documents/landcover_landuse_slcoff_tappan.pdf [47] Chen, J., Zhu, X., Vogelmann, J.E., Gao, F. and Jin, S. (2011) A Simple and Effective Method for Filling Gaps in Landsat Etm+ SLC-Off Images. Remote Sensing of Environment, 115, 1053-1064.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.12.010 [48] Cheng, J. (2003) Modelling Spatial and Temporal Urban Growth. PhD Thesis, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede. [49] Bingham, N.H. and Fry, J.M. (2010) Regression: Linear Models in Statistics. Undergraduate Mathematics Series, Springer, London.
[1] Lemmen, C., Oosterom, P.V., Eisenhut, C. and Uitermark, H. (2010) The Modelling of Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRR) in the Land Administration Domain Model (Ladm). Facing the Challenges—Building the Capacity. FIG Congress Sydney, Australia, 11-16 April 2010. [2] Kricher, J.C. (1997) A Neotropical Companion: An Introduction to the Animals, Plants and Ecosystems of the New World Tropics. J. C. Princeton University Press, Princeton. [3] FAO (2000) On Definitions of Forest and Forest Change. Forest Resources Assessment Programme, Working Paper 33, Rome 2000. [4] Mahbub Uddin Ahmed, A.I. (2008) Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Bangladesh. A Report Submitted to the Global Forest Coalition (GFC), The Netherlands.
http://vh-gfc.dpi.nl/img/userpics/File/UnderlyingCauses/Bangladesh-Report-Underlying-Causes-Workshops.pdf [5] Chan, S. and Sasaki, N. (2014) Assessment of Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Phnom Tbeng Forest Based on Socio-Economic Surveys. Journal of Environmental Protection, 5 1641-1653.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2014.517155 [6] Bregt, A., Crompvoets, J., De Man, E. and Grus, L. (2009) Challenges in Spatial Data Infrastructure Research: A Role for Transdisciplinarity? GSDI 11 Spatial Data Infrastructure Convergence: Building SDI Bridges to Address Global Challenges, Rotterdam, 15-19 June 2009. [7] Craglia, M., De Bie, K., Jackson, D., Pesaresi, M., Remetey-Fülöpp, G., Wang, C., Annoni, A., Bian, L., Campbell, F., Ehlers, M., Van Genderen, J., Goodchild, M., Guo, H., Lewis, A., Simpson, R., Skidmore, A. and Woodgate, P. (2012) Digital Earth 2020: Towards the Vision for the Next Decade. International Journal of Digital Earth, 5, 4-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17538947.2011.638500 [8] Bennett, R., Tambuwala, N., Rajabifard, A., Wallace, J. and Williamson, I. (2013) On Recognizing Land Administration as Critical, Public Good Infrastructure. Land Use Policy, 30, 84-93.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.02.004 [9] Kalantari, M., Rajabifard, A., Wallace, J. and Williamson, I. (2008) Spatially Referenced Legal Property Objects. Land Use Policy, 25, 173-181.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.04.004 [10] Aljaber, S., Ghosh, A.K. and Mahmud, M.S. (2014) Using Time Series of Satellite Images to Detect Vegetation Cover Change in Dhaka City. Journal of Geographic Information System, 6, 653-663.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jgis.2014.66054 [11] Akosim, C., Tella, I.O. and Jatau, D.F. (1998) Vegetation and Forest Resources. In: Adebayo, A.A. and Tukur, A.L., Eds., Adamawa State in Maps, Paraclete Publishers, Yola, 32. [12] ITTO (2009) Monitoring Deforestation, Logging and Land Use Change in the Pan Amazonia Forest—PanamazonII.
http://www.itto.int/files/itto_project_db_input/2980/Project/RED_PD_029_09_Rev%201_F_ProjectDocument_Final.pdf [13] FAO (2010) Global Forest Land-Use Change from 1990 to 2010: An Update to a Global Remote Sensing Survey of Forests.
http://foris.fao.org/static/data/fra2010/RSS2010update.pdf [14] WPF (2010) Deforestation Statistics. World Preservation Foundation.
http://www.worldpreservationfoundation.org/blog/news/deforestation-statistics/#.U7USu7G8TZc [15] Portillo-Quintero, C.A., Sanchez, A.M., Valbuena, C.A., Gonzalez, Y.Y. and Larreal, J.T. (2012) Forest Cover and Deforestation Patterns in the Northern Andes (Lake Maracaibo Basin): A Synoptic Assessment Using Modis and Landsat Imagery. Applied Geography, 35, 152-163.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.06.015 [16] Buizer, M., Humphreys, D. and De Jong, W. (2014) Climate Change and Deforestation: The Evolution of an Intersecting Policy Domain. Environmental Science & Policy, 35, 1-11.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2013.06.001 [17] Albani, M., Oppenheim, J., Riese, J. and Schwarz, A. (2012) Reducing Deforestation: The Land-Use Revolution. McKinsey on Sustainability & Resource Productivity Summer 2012.
http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/dotcom/client_service/Sustainability/PDFs/McK%20on%20SRP/SRP_10_Deforestation.ashx [18] Cacho, O.J., Milne, S., Gonzalez, R. and Tacconi, L. (2014) Benefits and Costs of Deforestation by Smallholders: Implications for Forest Conservation and Climate Policy. Ecological Economics, 107, 321-332.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.09.012 [19] Overmars, K.P., Stehfest, E., Tabeau, A., Van Meijl, H., Beltrán, A.M. and Kram, T. (2014) Estimating the Opportunity Costs of Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions Via Avoided Deforestation, Using Integrated Assessment Modelling. Land Use Policy, 41, 45-60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.04.015 [20] Araujo, C., Bonjean, C.A., Combes, J.-L., Motel, P.C. and Reis, E.J. (2010) Does Land Tenure Insecurity Drive Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon?
http://www.cerdi.org/uploads/pagePerso/28/2010.13.pdf [21] Robinson, B.E., Holland, M.B. and Naughton-Treves, L. (2011) Does Secure Land Tenure Save Forests? A Review of the Relationship between Land Tenure and Tropical Deforestation. Working Paper No. 7. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen.
http://www.ccafs.cgiar.org [22] Sunderlin, W.D., Larson, A.M., Duchelle, A.E., Resosudarmo, I.A.P., Huynh, T.B., Awono, A. and Dokken, T. (2014) How Are REDD+ Proponents Addressing Tenure Problems? Evidence from Brazil, Cameroon, Tanzania, Indonesia, and Vietnam. World Development, 55, 37-52.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.013 [23] USAID (2011) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Ecuador.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Ecuador_Profile.pdf [24] Ribeiro, C.A.A.S., Soares, V.P., Gleriani, J.M., Chaves, M.D.á., Lorenzon, A.S., Barros, K.D.O., Costa, F.R., Marcatti, G.E., Castro, N.L.M.D., Domingues, G.F. and Oliveira, J.D.C. (2013) Brazilian Forest Code: An Intriguing Framework for Designing Worldwide Protected Areas.
http://www.earsel.org/symposia/2013-symposium-Matera/pdf_proceedings/EARSeL-Symposium-2013_1_1_ribeiro.pdf [25] USAID (2012) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Brazil.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Brazil_Profile.pdf [26] Pacheco, P. (2005) Law Compliance: Bolivia Case Study.
http://www.fao.org/forestry/19583-06647b501b992f13fa80edbbb8942712c.pdf [27] USAID (2014) Property Rights and Resource Governace in Bolivia.
http://www.usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Bolivia_Profile.pdf [28] USAID (2010) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Thailand.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Thailand_Profile.pdf [29] NFAM (2006) Laws of Malaysia: National Forestry Act 1984.
http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%207/Act%20313.pdf [30] Wright, G. (2011) Indegenous People and Customary Land Ownership under Domestic Redd+ Frameworks: A Case Study of Indonesia. Law, Environment and Development Journal, 7, 117-130. [31] USAID (2012) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Indonesia.
http://www.usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Indonesia_Profile_0.pdf [32] Abdulai, A., Owusu, V. and Goetz, R. (2011) Land Tenure Differences and Investment in Land Improvement Measures: Theoretical and Empirical Analyses. Journal of Development Economics, 96, 66-78.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.08.002 [33] Counsel, S. (2006) Forest Governance in the Democratic Republic of Congo: An Ngo Perspective.
http://www.fern.org/sites/fern.org/files/media/documents/document_3663_3664.pdf [34] USAID (2010) PropertyRights and Resouce Governance in Democratic Republic of Congo.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/democratic-republic-of-congo [35] Boakye, K.A. and Baffoe, K.A. (2006) Trends in Forest Ownership, Forest Resource Tenure and Institutional Arrangements: Resource Management Support Centre, Forestry Commission of Ghana.
http://www.fao.org/forestry/12505-01d2e95c6b96016463fe58818c7e9c29d.pdf [36] USAID (2010) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Nigeria.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Nigeria_Profile.pdf [37] USAID (2012) Property Rights and Resource Governance in Ghana.
http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Ghana_Profile_0.pdf [38] GGSLN (1983) A Law for the Preservation and Control of Forests. Gongola State Law of Nigeria, CAP, 56. [39] RRI (2015) Nigeria: Rights and Resources Initiatives.
http://www.rightsandresources.org/documents/files/doc_4690.pdf [40] Lam, M.K., Tan, K.T., Lee, K.T. and Mohamed, A.R. (2009) Malaysian Palm Oil: Surviving the Food versus Fuel Dispute for a Sustainable Future. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13, 1456-1464.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2008.09.009 [41] Goodchild, M.F. and Glennon, J.A. (2010) Crowdsourcing Geographic Information for Disaster Response: A Research Frontier. International Journal of Digital Earth, 3, 231-241.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17538941003759255 [42] Jokar Arsanjani, J., Helbich, M., Bakillah, M. and Loos, L. (2015) The Emergence and Evolution of OpenStreetMap: A Cellular Automata Approach. International Journal of Digital Earth, 8, 76-90. [43] Noordegaaf, J., Barthalomew, A. and Eveleigh, A. (2014) Modeling Crowdsourcing for Cultural Heritage. MW2014: Museums and the Web 2014.
http://mw2014.museumsandtheweb.com/paper/modeling-crowdsourcing-for-cultural- [44] Tulloch, D. (2014) Crowdsourcing Geographic Knowledge: Volunteered Geographic Information (Vgi) in Theory and Practice. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 28, 847-849.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13658816.2013.873440 [45] EROS (2003) Slc-Off Scientific Usability: Preliminary Assessment of the Value of Landsat 7 Etm+ Data Following Scan Line Corrector Malfunction.
http://landsat.usgs.gov/documents/SLC_off_Scientific_Usability.pdf [46] Tappan, G. and Cushing, M. (2004) Use of SLC-Off Landsat Image Data for Monitoring Land Use/Land Cover Trends in West Africa.
http://landsat.usgs.gov/documents/landcover_landuse_slcoff_tappan.pdf [47] Chen, J., Zhu, X., Vogelmann, J.E., Gao, F. and Jin, S. (2011) A Simple and Effective Method for Filling Gaps in Landsat Etm+ SLC-Off Images. Remote Sensing of Environment, 115, 1053-1064.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.12.010 [48] Cheng, J. (2003) Modelling Spatial and Temporal Urban Growth. PhD Thesis, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede. [49] Bingham, N.H. and Fry, J.M. (2010) Regression: Linear Models in Statistics. Undergraduate Mathematics Series, Springer, London.