Geomorphologic and Hydrogeologic Characteristics of Populated Rockslide Deposits (Sagarmatha National Park, Khumbu Himal, Nepal)
Author(s)
Joachim Götz1*,
Johannes Thomas Weidinger1,2,
Stefan Kraxberger1,
Anne-Lise Hennecke1,
Johannes Buckel1,
Basanta Raj Adhikari3
Affiliation(s)
1 Department of Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria. 2 Erkudok-Institute, K-Hof-Museums of Gmunden, Gmunden, Austria. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.
1 Department of Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria. 2 Erkudok-Institute, K-Hof-Museums of Gmunden, Gmunden, Austria. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.
ABSTRACT
Surface morphology and internal composition of large rockslide deposits have been frequently studied, but their hydrogeologic conditions and consequences for (drinking) water quality and quantity on such deposits are largely unknown. In this study we provide first information on this critical relationship for two large rockslide deposits in the Khumbu Himal (Nepal), which are at the same time the main settlement areas in the region. In the first step, we investigated the Lukla and the Namche-Khumjung rockslides with respect to their dimensions and internal composition based on orthophotos and digital elevation models, geomorphologic field mapping, and the analysis of rockslide outcrops. Secondly, we studied their hydrogeologic characteristics by means of spring water mapping, sampling and analyses. As a consequence of the fragmented and highly shattered rockslide material, both deposits are characterized by 1) effective infiltration, 2) short residence times of percolating water and 3) by only small amounts of available spring water and surface runoff at all. Human activity on the studied rockslide deposits can therefore be described as an ambivalent relationship: On the one hand, the rockslide deposits provide a gentle topography and the only available areas for extensive settlements and agriculture in the steep upper DudhKosi catchment; On the other hand, their internal composition accounts for water scarcity—a critical issue for the local population demanding for adaptation strategies, especially in the light of the ever—increasing trekking and expedition tourism in the region.
Surface morphology and internal composition of large rockslide deposits have been frequently studied, but their hydrogeologic conditions and consequences for (drinking) water quality and quantity on such deposits are largely unknown. In this study we provide first information on this critical relationship for two large rockslide deposits in the Khumbu Himal (Nepal), which are at the same time the main settlement areas in the region. In the first step, we investigated the Lukla and the Namche-Khumjung rockslides with respect to their dimensions and internal composition based on orthophotos and digital elevation models, geomorphologic field mapping, and the analysis of rockslide outcrops. Secondly, we studied their hydrogeologic characteristics by means of spring water mapping, sampling and analyses. As a consequence of the fragmented and highly shattered rockslide material, both deposits are characterized by 1) effective infiltration, 2) short residence times of percolating water and 3) by only small amounts of available spring water and surface runoff at all. Human activity on the studied rockslide deposits can therefore be described as an ambivalent relationship: On the one hand, the rockslide deposits provide a gentle topography and the only available areas for extensive settlements and agriculture in the steep upper DudhKosi catchment; On the other hand, their internal composition accounts for water scarcity—a critical issue for the local population demanding for adaptation strategies, especially in the light of the ever—increasing trekking and expedition tourism in the region.
KEYWORDS
Khumbu Himal, Geomorphologic and Hydrogeologic Mapping, Rockslide Morphology, Rockslide Hydrology, Water Scarcity
Khumbu Himal, Geomorphologic and Hydrogeologic Mapping, Rockslide Morphology, Rockslide Hydrology, Water Scarcity
Cite this paper
Götz, J. , Weidinger, J. , Kraxberger, S. , Hennecke, A. , Buckel, J. and Adhikari, B. (2015) Geomorphologic and Hydrogeologic Characteristics of Populated Rockslide Deposits (Sagarmatha National Park, Khumbu Himal, Nepal). Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 7, 1038-1048. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2015.713085.
Götz, J. , Weidinger, J. , Kraxberger, S. , Hennecke, A. , Buckel, J. and Adhikari, B. (2015) Geomorphologic and Hydrogeologic Characteristics of Populated Rockslide Deposits (Sagarmatha National Park, Khumbu Himal, Nepal). Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 7, 1038-1048. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2015.713085.
References
[1] Heuberger, H. (1956) Beobachtungen über die heutige und eiszeitliche Vergletscherung in Ostnepal. Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, 3, 349-364. [2] Heuberger, H. and Weingartner, H. (1985) Die Ausdehnung der letzteiszeitlichen Vergletscherung an der Mount- Everest-Südflanke, Nepal. Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft, 127, 71-80. [3] Heuberger, H. (1986) Der Bergsturz von Khumdschung, Mount-Everest-Gebiet, Nepal. Material und Technik, 3, 175-181. [4] Uhlir, C.F. (1998) Landslide-Dammed Lakes: A Case Study of the Lamabagar and Chaurikharka Landslide Deposits, Dolakha and Solukhumbu Districts, Eastern Nepal. Journal of the Nepal Geological Society, 18, 329-334. [5] Weidinger, J.T. (2011) Stability and Life Span of Landslide Dams in the Himalayas (India, Nepal) and the Qin Ling Mountains (China). In: Evans, S.G., Hermanns, R.L., Strom, A. and Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Eds., Natural and Artificial Rockslide Dams, Springer, Berlin, 243-277.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04764-0_8 [6] Korup, O. and Weidinger, J.T. (2011) Rock Type, Precipation, and the Steepness of Himalayan Threshold Hillslopes. Geological Society, 353, 235-249.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP353.12 [7] Miehe, G. (1991) Die Vegetationskarte des KhumbuHimal (Mt. Everest-Südabdachung) 1:50,000 Gefügemuster der Vegetation und Probleme der Kartierung. Erdkunde, 45, 81-94.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.1991.02.01 [8] Weidinger, J.T., Korup, O., Munack, H., Altenberger, U., Dunning, S., Tippelt, G. and Lottermoser, W. (2014) Giant Rockslides from the inside. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 389, 62-73.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.017 [9] Schramm, J.M. and Weidinger, J.T. (1996) Distribution of Electrical Conductivity at TsergoRi Landslide, Central- North Nepal. In: Senneset, K., Ed., Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Landslides, Balkema, Trondheim, Balkema/Rotterdam/Brookfield, 17-21 June 1996, 889-894. [10] Dahal, R.K. and Hasegawa, S. (2008) Representative Rainfall Thresholds for Landslides in the Nepal Himalaya. Geomorphology, 100, 429-443.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.01.014 [11] Gabet, E.J., Burbank, D.W., Putkonen, J.K., Pratt-Sitaula, B.A. and Ojha, T. (2004) Rainfall Thresholds for Landsliding in the Himalayas of Nepal. Geomorphology, 63, 131-143.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.03.011 [12] Petley, D., Hearn, G., Hart, A., Rosser, N., Dunning, S., Oven, K. and Mitchell, W. (2007) Trends in Landslide Occurrence in Nepal. Natural Hazards, 43, 23-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-006-9100-3 [13] Manfredi, E., Flury, B., Viviano, G., Thakuri, S., Khanal, S.N., Jha, P.K., Maskey, R.K., Kayastha, R.B., Kafle, K.R., Bhochhibhoay, S., Ghimire, N.P., Shrestha, B.B., Chaudhary, G., Giannino, F., Carteni, F., Mazzoleni, S. and Salerno, F. (2010) Solid Waste and Water Quality Management Models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 30, 127-142.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00028.1 [14] Posch, E., Bell, R., Weidinger, J.T. and Glade, T. (2015, submitted) Geomorphic processes, rock quality and solid waste management - Examples from the Mt. Everest Region of Nepal. Journal of Water Resource and Protection. [15] Ghimire, N.P., Shrestha, B.B., Jha, P.K. and Caravello, G. (2014) Metals Assessments in the Water Bodies of Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 6, 68-74.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2014.62011 [16] Balestrini, R., Polesello, S. and Sacchi, E. (2014) Chemistry and Isotopic Composition of Precipitation and Surface Waters in Khumbu Valley (Nepal Himalaya): N Dynamics of High Elevation Basins. Science of the Total Environment, 485/486, 681-692.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.096 [17] Heuberger, H., Ed. (1987) Shorong-Hinku-Map, 1:50.000 (Third Edition)—Nepal-Kartenwerk der Arbeitsgemeinschaft für vergleichende Hochgebirgsforschung Nr. 5, Nelles Verlag, München. [18] Kneisel, C., Lehmkuhl, F., Winkler, S., Tressel, E. and Schröder, H. (1998) Legende für geomorphologische Kartierungen im Hochgebirge. Trierer Geographische Studien 18, Geographische Gesellschaft, Trier. [19] Otto, J.C. and Dikau, R. (2004) Geomorphologic System Analysis of a High Mountain Valley in the Swiss Alps. Zeitschriftfür Geomorphologie, 48, 323-341. [20] Vuichard, D. (1986) Geological and Petrographical Investigations for the Mountain Hazards Mapping Project, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 6, 41-52.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3673339 [21] Zimmermann, M., Bichsel, M. and Kienholz, H. (1986) Mountain Hazards in the Khumbu Himal, Nepal, with Prototype Map, Scale 1:50.000. Mountain Research and Development, 6, 29-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3673338 [22] Vuichard, D. and Zimmermann, M. (1986) The Langmoche Flash Flood, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 6, 90-94.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3673345 [23] Owen, L.A., Derbyshire, E. and Fort, M. (1998) The Quaternary Glacial History of the Himalaya. Quaternary Proceedings, 6, 91-120. [24] Götz, J., Weidinger, J.T., Kraxberger, S., Hennecke, A.-L., Buckel, J. and Adhikari, B.R. (In Preparation) Quaternary Landscape Evolution of the DudhKosi Valley. [25] Fort, M. (2011) Two Large Late Quaternary Rock Slope Failures and Their Geomorphic Significance, Annapurna Himalayas (Nepal). Geografia Fisica e Dinammica Quaternaria, 34, 5-16. [26] Weidinger, J.T. (2006) Predesign, Failure and Displacement Mechanisms of Large Rockslides in the Annapurna Himalayas, Nepal. Engineering Geology, 83, 201-216.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.032 [27] Korup, O., Strom, A.L. and Weidinger, J.T. (2006) Fluvial Response to Large Rock-Slope Failures: Examples from the Himalayas, the Tien Shan, and the Southern Alps in New Zealand. Geomorphology, 78, 3-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.020 [28] Weidinger, J.T., Schramm, J.M. and Nuschej, F. (2002) Ore Mineralization Causing Slope Failure in a High-Altitude Mountain Crest—On the Collapse of an 8000m Peak in Nepal. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 21, 295-306.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00080-9 [29] Kollmann, W. (1986) Die Bestimmung des durchfluβwirksamen Porenvolumens von Sedimenten und seine Bedeutung für den Grundwasserschutz. Mitteilungen Österreichische Geologische Gesellschaft, 79, 63-76. [30] Gernedel, H. and Hitsch, E. (2001) Drinking Water and Sewage System Namche Bazar. In: Himal, E., Ed., Energy from the Top of the World. Small Hydropower Plant Thame-Namche Bazar, Nepal, Jeewan Printing Support Press, Kathmandu, 40. [31] Harlin, J. (2014) Everest Alliance Discussions in Nepal during May 2014.
http://www.highmountains.org/blog/everest-alliance-discussions-nepal-during-may-2014
[1] Heuberger, H. (1956) Beobachtungen über die heutige und eiszeitliche Vergletscherung in Ostnepal. Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, 3, 349-364. [2] Heuberger, H. and Weingartner, H. (1985) Die Ausdehnung der letzteiszeitlichen Vergletscherung an der Mount- Everest-Südflanke, Nepal. Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft, 127, 71-80. [3] Heuberger, H. (1986) Der Bergsturz von Khumdschung, Mount-Everest-Gebiet, Nepal. Material und Technik, 3, 175-181. [4] Uhlir, C.F. (1998) Landslide-Dammed Lakes: A Case Study of the Lamabagar and Chaurikharka Landslide Deposits, Dolakha and Solukhumbu Districts, Eastern Nepal. Journal of the Nepal Geological Society, 18, 329-334. [5] Weidinger, J.T. (2011) Stability and Life Span of Landslide Dams in the Himalayas (India, Nepal) and the Qin Ling Mountains (China). In: Evans, S.G., Hermanns, R.L., Strom, A. and Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Eds., Natural and Artificial Rockslide Dams, Springer, Berlin, 243-277.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04764-0_8 [6] Korup, O. and Weidinger, J.T. (2011) Rock Type, Precipation, and the Steepness of Himalayan Threshold Hillslopes. Geological Society, 353, 235-249.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP353.12 [7] Miehe, G. (1991) Die Vegetationskarte des KhumbuHimal (Mt. Everest-Südabdachung) 1:50,000 Gefügemuster der Vegetation und Probleme der Kartierung. Erdkunde, 45, 81-94.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.1991.02.01 [8] Weidinger, J.T., Korup, O., Munack, H., Altenberger, U., Dunning, S., Tippelt, G. and Lottermoser, W. (2014) Giant Rockslides from the inside. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 389, 62-73.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.017 [9] Schramm, J.M. and Weidinger, J.T. (1996) Distribution of Electrical Conductivity at TsergoRi Landslide, Central- North Nepal. In: Senneset, K., Ed., Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Landslides, Balkema, Trondheim, Balkema/Rotterdam/Brookfield, 17-21 June 1996, 889-894. [10] Dahal, R.K. and Hasegawa, S. (2008) Representative Rainfall Thresholds for Landslides in the Nepal Himalaya. Geomorphology, 100, 429-443.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.01.014 [11] Gabet, E.J., Burbank, D.W., Putkonen, J.K., Pratt-Sitaula, B.A. and Ojha, T. (2004) Rainfall Thresholds for Landsliding in the Himalayas of Nepal. Geomorphology, 63, 131-143.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.03.011 [12] Petley, D., Hearn, G., Hart, A., Rosser, N., Dunning, S., Oven, K. and Mitchell, W. (2007) Trends in Landslide Occurrence in Nepal. Natural Hazards, 43, 23-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-006-9100-3 [13] Manfredi, E., Flury, B., Viviano, G., Thakuri, S., Khanal, S.N., Jha, P.K., Maskey, R.K., Kayastha, R.B., Kafle, K.R., Bhochhibhoay, S., Ghimire, N.P., Shrestha, B.B., Chaudhary, G., Giannino, F., Carteni, F., Mazzoleni, S. and Salerno, F. (2010) Solid Waste and Water Quality Management Models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 30, 127-142.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00028.1 [14] Posch, E., Bell, R., Weidinger, J.T. and Glade, T. (2015, submitted) Geomorphic processes, rock quality and solid waste management - Examples from the Mt. Everest Region of Nepal. Journal of Water Resource and Protection. [15] Ghimire, N.P., Shrestha, B.B., Jha, P.K. and Caravello, G. (2014) Metals Assessments in the Water Bodies of Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 6, 68-74.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2014.62011 [16] Balestrini, R., Polesello, S. and Sacchi, E. (2014) Chemistry and Isotopic Composition of Precipitation and Surface Waters in Khumbu Valley (Nepal Himalaya): N Dynamics of High Elevation Basins. Science of the Total Environment, 485/486, 681-692.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.096 [17] Heuberger, H., Ed. (1987) Shorong-Hinku-Map, 1:50.000 (Third Edition)—Nepal-Kartenwerk der Arbeitsgemeinschaft für vergleichende Hochgebirgsforschung Nr. 5, Nelles Verlag, München. [18] Kneisel, C., Lehmkuhl, F., Winkler, S., Tressel, E. and Schröder, H. (1998) Legende für geomorphologische Kartierungen im Hochgebirge. Trierer Geographische Studien 18, Geographische Gesellschaft, Trier. [19] Otto, J.C. and Dikau, R. (2004) Geomorphologic System Analysis of a High Mountain Valley in the Swiss Alps. Zeitschriftfür Geomorphologie, 48, 323-341. [20] Vuichard, D. (1986) Geological and Petrographical Investigations for the Mountain Hazards Mapping Project, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 6, 41-52.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3673339 [21] Zimmermann, M., Bichsel, M. and Kienholz, H. (1986) Mountain Hazards in the Khumbu Himal, Nepal, with Prototype Map, Scale 1:50.000. Mountain Research and Development, 6, 29-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3673338 [22] Vuichard, D. and Zimmermann, M. (1986) The Langmoche Flash Flood, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 6, 90-94.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3673345 [23] Owen, L.A., Derbyshire, E. and Fort, M. (1998) The Quaternary Glacial History of the Himalaya. Quaternary Proceedings, 6, 91-120. [24] Götz, J., Weidinger, J.T., Kraxberger, S., Hennecke, A.-L., Buckel, J. and Adhikari, B.R. (In Preparation) Quaternary Landscape Evolution of the DudhKosi Valley. [25] Fort, M. (2011) Two Large Late Quaternary Rock Slope Failures and Their Geomorphic Significance, Annapurna Himalayas (Nepal). Geografia Fisica e Dinammica Quaternaria, 34, 5-16. [26] Weidinger, J.T. (2006) Predesign, Failure and Displacement Mechanisms of Large Rockslides in the Annapurna Himalayas, Nepal. Engineering Geology, 83, 201-216.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.032 [27] Korup, O., Strom, A.L. and Weidinger, J.T. (2006) Fluvial Response to Large Rock-Slope Failures: Examples from the Himalayas, the Tien Shan, and the Southern Alps in New Zealand. Geomorphology, 78, 3-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.020 [28] Weidinger, J.T., Schramm, J.M. and Nuschej, F. (2002) Ore Mineralization Causing Slope Failure in a High-Altitude Mountain Crest—On the Collapse of an 8000m Peak in Nepal. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 21, 295-306.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00080-9 [29] Kollmann, W. (1986) Die Bestimmung des durchfluβwirksamen Porenvolumens von Sedimenten und seine Bedeutung für den Grundwasserschutz. Mitteilungen Österreichische Geologische Gesellschaft, 79, 63-76. [30] Gernedel, H. and Hitsch, E. (2001) Drinking Water and Sewage System Namche Bazar. In: Himal, E., Ed., Energy from the Top of the World. Small Hydropower Plant Thame-Namche Bazar, Nepal, Jeewan Printing Support Press, Kathmandu, 40. [31] Harlin, J. (2014) Everest Alliance Discussions in Nepal during May 2014.
http://www.highmountains.org/blog/everest-alliance-discussions-nepal-during-may-2014