Gold Nanoparticles in Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformations
Affiliation(s)
1 Department of Radiation Oncology, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland. 2 Ioffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia.
1 Department of Radiation Oncology, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland. 2 Ioffe Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia.
ABSTRACT
Objective of the study: To explore the potential for therapeutic gain with gold nanoparticles in arteriovenous malformation radiosurgery based on their interaction with photons and protons. Study methods: Radiation dose enhancement resulting from the interaction of gold nanoparticles with irradiation ranging from kilovoltage to megavoltage photons and protons was researched in the literature. The role of angiogenesis and its regulation via vascular endothelial growth factors and cell membrane receptors, especially for endothelial cells in arteriovenous malformations, was investigated as a way for selective arteriovenous malformation deposition. Results: Radiation dose enhancement with gold nanoparticles is described in the literature but has so far only been investigated for its potential in treating malignancies. Because of the high atomic number of gold (Z = 79), dose enhancement occurs with photons mainly based on secondary photon and Auger electron production and the dose enhancement factor is the highest for irradiation with kilo voltage photons. Dose enhancement happens with megavoltage photons also but to a lesser extend and is mainly due to the ionization of gold by secondary photons and electrons generated by the megavoltage photons passing through tissue. The range of the secondary photo electrons emitted by gold is sufficient to cover the entire endothelial cell content. Protons interact with the production of Auger electrons which have a very short range, insufficient to cover the entire contents of endothelial cells, but sufficient to cause a high cell membrane dose for membrane located gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Arteriovenous malformations are dynamic entities with angiogenesis taking place. This is reflected by a different expression of angiogenic receptors on the membrane of arteriovenous malformation endothelial cells compared to normal brain blood vessels, thereby opening the opportunity for selective deposition of such particles. For the use in proton therapy a new definition for the dose enhancement factor describing the local effect of nanoparticles is proposed. Conclusion: The concept of nanoparticle enhanced radiosurgery for arteriovenous malfor-mations by selective deposition of gold nanoparticles is a novel approach. The local dose enhancement opens the way for therapeutic gain which in turn could lead to improved obliteration rates and/or a shorter latent period.
Objective of the study: To explore the potential for therapeutic gain with gold nanoparticles in arteriovenous malformation radiosurgery based on their interaction with photons and protons. Study methods: Radiation dose enhancement resulting from the interaction of gold nanoparticles with irradiation ranging from kilovoltage to megavoltage photons and protons was researched in the literature. The role of angiogenesis and its regulation via vascular endothelial growth factors and cell membrane receptors, especially for endothelial cells in arteriovenous malformations, was investigated as a way for selective arteriovenous malformation deposition. Results: Radiation dose enhancement with gold nanoparticles is described in the literature but has so far only been investigated for its potential in treating malignancies. Because of the high atomic number of gold (Z = 79), dose enhancement occurs with photons mainly based on secondary photon and Auger electron production and the dose enhancement factor is the highest for irradiation with kilo voltage photons. Dose enhancement happens with megavoltage photons also but to a lesser extend and is mainly due to the ionization of gold by secondary photons and electrons generated by the megavoltage photons passing through tissue. The range of the secondary photo electrons emitted by gold is sufficient to cover the entire endothelial cell content. Protons interact with the production of Auger electrons which have a very short range, insufficient to cover the entire contents of endothelial cells, but sufficient to cause a high cell membrane dose for membrane located gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Arteriovenous malformations are dynamic entities with angiogenesis taking place. This is reflected by a different expression of angiogenic receptors on the membrane of arteriovenous malformation endothelial cells compared to normal brain blood vessels, thereby opening the opportunity for selective deposition of such particles. For the use in proton therapy a new definition for the dose enhancement factor describing the local effect of nanoparticles is proposed. Conclusion: The concept of nanoparticle enhanced radiosurgery for arteriovenous malfor-mations by selective deposition of gold nanoparticles is a novel approach. The local dose enhancement opens the way for therapeutic gain which in turn could lead to improved obliteration rates and/or a shorter latent period.
Cite this paper
Vernimmen, F. and Shmatov, M. (2015) Gold Nanoparticles in Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformations. Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, 6, 204-212. doi: 10.4236/jbnb.2015.63019.
Vernimmen, F. and Shmatov, M. (2015) Gold Nanoparticles in Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformations. Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, 6, 204-212. doi: 10.4236/jbnb.2015.63019.
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[1] Thakor, A.S., Jokerst, J., Zaveleta, C., Massoud, T.F. and Gambhir, S.S. (2011) Gold Nanoparticles: A Revival in Precious Metal Administration to Patients. Nano Letters, 11, 4029-4036.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl202559p [2] Mieszawska, A.J., Mulder, W.J.M., Fayad, Z.A. and Cormode, D.P. (2013) Multifunctional Gold Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and Therapy of Disease. Molecular Pharmaceutics, 10, 831-847.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/mp3005885 [3] Babaei, M. and Ganjalikhani, M. (2014) A Systematic Review of Gold Nanoparticles as Novel Cancer Therapeutics. Nanomedicine Journal, 1, 211-219. [4] Cai, W.B., Gao, T., Hong, H. and Sun, J.T. (2008) Applications of Gold Nanoparticles in Cancer Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology, Science and Applications, 1, 17-32. [5] Kumar, R., Korideck, H., Ngwa, W., Berbeco, R.I. and Sridhar, S. (2013) Third Generation Gold Nanoplatform Optimized for Radiation Therapy. Translational Cancer Research, 2, 228-239. [6] Ngwa, W., Kumar, R., Sridhar, S., Korideck, H., Zygmanski, P., Cormack, R.A., et al. (2014) Targeted Radiotherapy with Gold Nanoparticles: Current Status and Future Perspectives. Nanomedicine, 9, 1063-1082.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/nnm.14.55 [7] Hainfeld, J.F., Dilmanian, F.A., Slatkin, D.N. and Smilowitz, H.M. (2008) Radiotherapy Enhancement with Gold Nanoparticles. J Pharm Pharmacol, 60, 977-985.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1211/jpp.60.8.0005 [8] Liu, C.J., Wang, C.H., Chen, S.T., Chen, H.H., Leng, W.H., Chien, C.C., et al. (2010) Enhancement of Cell Radiation Sensitivity by Pegylated Gold Nanoparticles. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 55, 931-945.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/55/4/002 [9] Cooper, D.R., Bekah, D. and Nadeau, J.L. (2014) Gold Nanoparticles and Their Alternatives for Radiation Therapy Enhancement. Frontiers in Chemistry, 2, Article 86.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2014.00086 [10] Kwatra, D., Venugopal, A. and Anant, S. (2013) Nanoparticles in Radiation Therapy: A Summary of Various Approaches to Enhance Radiosensitization in Cancer. Translational Cancer research, 2, 330-342. [11] Kim, J.K., Seo, S.J., Kim, H.T., Kim, K.H., Chung, M.H., Kim, K.R., et al. (2012) Enhanced Proton Treatment in Mouse Tumours through Proton Irradiated Nanoradiator Effects on Metallic Nanoparticles. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 57, 8309-8323.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/57/24/8309 [12] Babaei, M. and Ganjalikhani, M. (2014) The Potential Effectiveness of Nanoparticles as Radiosensitizers for Radiotherapy. Bioimpacts, 4, 15-20. [13] Kim, B.Y.S., Rutka, J.T. and Chan, W. (2010) Current Concepts Nanomedicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 363, 2434-2343.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0912273 [14] Lin, Z., Monteiro-Riviere, N.A. and Riviere, J.E. (2015) Pharmacokinetics of Metallic Nanoparticles. Nanomed Nanobiotechnol, 7, 189-217.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1304 [15] Zhang, X. (2015) Gold Nanoparticles: Recent Advances in the Biomedical Applications. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics, Epub ahead of publication. [16] Hossain, M. and Ming, S. (2012) Nanoparticle Location and Material Dependent Dose Enhancement in X-Ray Radiation Therapy. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C: Nanomater Interfaces, 116, 23047-23052.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp306543q [17] McMahon, S.J., Hyland, W.B., Muir, M.F., Coulter, J.A., Jain, S., Butterworth, K.T., et al. (2011) Nanodosimetric Effects of Gold Nanoparticles in Megavoltage Radiation Therapy. Radiotherapy and Oncology, 100, 412-416.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.radonc.2011.08.026 [18] Berbeco, R.I., Ngwa, W. and Makrigiorgos, G. (2011) Localized Dose Enhancement to Tumour Blood Vessel Endothelial Cells via Megavoltage X-Rays and Targeted Gold Nanoparticles: New Potential for External Beam Radiotherapy. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics, 81, 270-276.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2010.10.022 [19] Sicard-Roselli, C., Brun, E., Gilles, M., Baldacchino, G., Kelsey, C., McQuaid, H., et al. (2014) A New Mechanismfor Hydroxyl Radical Production in Irradiated Nanoparticle Solutions. Small, 10, 3338-3346.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smll.201400110 [20] Taggart, L.E., McMahon, S.J., Currell, F.J., Prise, K.M. and Butterworth, K.T. (2014) The Role of Mitochondrial Function in Gold Nanoparticle Mediated Radiosensitization. Cancer Nanotechnology, 5, 5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12645-014-0005-7 [21] Lin, Y., McMahon, S.J., Scarpelli, M., Paganetti, H. and Schuemann, J. (2014) Comparing Gold Nano-Particle Enhanced Radiotherapy with Protons, Megavoltage Photons and Kilovoltage Photons: A Monte Carlo Simulation. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 59, 7675-7689.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/59/24/7675 [22] Wlzlein, C., Scifoni, E., Kramer, M. and Durante, M. (2014) Simulations of Dose Enhancement for Heavy Atom Nanoparticles Irradiated by Protons. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 59, 1441-1458.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/59/6/1441 [23] Robar, J.L., Riccio, S.A. and Martin, M.A. (2002) Tumor Dose Enhancement Using Modified Megavoltage Photon Beams and Contrast Media. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 47, 2433-2449.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/47/14/305 [24] Polf, J.C., Bronk, L.F., Driessen, W.H.P., Arap, W., Pasqualini, R. and Gillin, M. (2011) Enhanced Relative Biological Effectiveness of Proton Radiotherapy with Internalized Gold Nanoparticles. Applied Physics Letters, 98, Article ID: 193702.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3589914 [25] Le Sech, C., Kobayashi, K., Usami, N., Furusawa, Y., Porcel, E. and Lacombe, S. (2012) Comment on “Enhanced Relative Biological Effectiveness of Proton Radiotherapy in Tumor Cells with Internalized Gold Nanoparticles”. Applied Physics Letters, 100, Article ID: 026101.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3675570 [26] Samuel, A.H. and Magee, J.L. (1953) Theory of Radiation Chemistry. II. Track Effects in Radiolysis of Water. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 21, 1080-1087.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1699113 [27] Byakov, V.M. and Stepanov, S.V. (2006) The Mechanism for the Primary Biological Effect of Ionizing Radiation. Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 176, 487-506. (English citation: Physics-Uspekhi, 49, 469-487)
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