Qualities of Effective Leadership in Higher Education
Author(s)
Simon A. Black
ABSTRACT
The leadership of Higher Education institutions has been placed under increasing scrutiny since the 1980s with the expansion of student numbers, changes in funding for student places, increased marketization and student choice, and continuing globalisation of the sector. In this climate of change Higher Education institutions have been required to consider how to develop their leaders and what might be appropriate leadership behaviour to enable adaptation to these new circumstances. When the various paradigms of leadership encountered in the Higher Education sector are compared with established leadership theory and practice it is possible to identify further intricacies in the development of Higher Education leaders. Further consideration of practicalities within Higher Education identifies whether competence frameworks might assist in leadership development. An examination of a recently-developed comprehensive framework of leadership capabilities applied in an alternative sector leads to an evaluation as to whether the same constructs apply to the demands placed upon leaders in Higher Education. Analysis demonstrates that, with minor changes in terminology, the constructs remain appropriate and valid. The definitions of activities and behaviours offer insight into how Higher Education leaders could be developed and therefore form a potential framework of leadership capabilities for Higher Education.
The leadership of Higher Education institutions has been placed under increasing scrutiny since the 1980s with the expansion of student numbers, changes in funding for student places, increased marketization and student choice, and continuing globalisation of the sector. In this climate of change Higher Education institutions have been required to consider how to develop their leaders and what might be appropriate leadership behaviour to enable adaptation to these new circumstances. When the various paradigms of leadership encountered in the Higher Education sector are compared with established leadership theory and practice it is possible to identify further intricacies in the development of Higher Education leaders. Further consideration of practicalities within Higher Education identifies whether competence frameworks might assist in leadership development. An examination of a recently-developed comprehensive framework of leadership capabilities applied in an alternative sector leads to an evaluation as to whether the same constructs apply to the demands placed upon leaders in Higher Education. Analysis demonstrates that, with minor changes in terminology, the constructs remain appropriate and valid. The definitions of activities and behaviours offer insight into how Higher Education leaders could be developed and therefore form a potential framework of leadership capabilities for Higher Education.
Cite this paper
A. Black, S. (2015) Qualities of Effective Leadership in Higher Education. Open Journal of Leadership, 4, 54-66. doi: 10.4236/ojl.2015.42006.
A. Black, S. (2015) Qualities of Effective Leadership in Higher Education. Open Journal of Leadership, 4, 54-66. doi: 10.4236/ojl.2015.42006.
References
[1] Adair, J. (1979). Action-Centred Leadership. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Gower. [2] Alexander, F. K. (2000). The Changing Face of Accountability: Monitoring and Assessing Institutional Performance in Higher Education. The Journal of Higher Education, 71, 411-431.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2649146 [3] Altbach (2011). The Past, Present, and Future of the Research University. In P. G. Altbach, & J. Salmi, (Eds.), The Road to Academic Excellence (pp. 11-32). Washington DC: The World Bank. [4] Amey, M. J. (2006). Leadership in Higher Education, Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 38, 55-58. [5] Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (2000). Leadership Reconsidered: Engaging Higher Education in Social Change. Battle Creek, MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation. [6] Bass, B. M. (1997). Does the Transactional-Transformational Leadership Paradigm Transcend Organizational and National boundaries? American Psychologist, 52, 130-139.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.2.130 [7] Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Transformational Leadership and Organizational Culture. Public Administration Quarterly, 17, 112-121. [8] Bennis, W. (1999). The Leadership Advantage. Leader to Leader, 12, 18-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ltl.40619991205 [9] Bennis, W. (2009). On Becoming a Leader (Revised Edition). New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing. [10] Black, S. A., & Copsey, J. A. (2014a). Does Deming’s “System of Profound Knowledge” Apply to Leaders of Biodiversity Conservation? Open Journal of Leadership, 3, 53-65.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojl.2014.32006 [11] Black, S. A., & Copsey, J. A. (2014b). Purpose, Process, Knowledge and Dignity in Interdisciplinary Projects. Conservation Biology, 28, 1139-1141.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12344 [12] Black, S. A., Groombridge, J. J., & Jones, C. G. (2011). Leadership and Conservation Effectiveness: Finding a Better Way to Lead. Conservation Letters, 4, 329-339.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00184.x [13] Black, S. A., Groombridge, J. J., & Jones, C. G. (2013). Using Better Management Thinking to Improve Conservation Effectiveness. ISRN Biodiversity, 2013, Article ID: 784701. [14] Black, S. A., Meredith, H. M. R., & Groombridge, J. J. (2011). Biodiversity Conservation: Applying New Criteria to Assess Excellence. Total Quality Management, 22, 1165-1178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2011.624766 [15] Bryman, A. (2007). Effective Leadership in Higher Education: A Literature Review. Studies in Higher Education, 32, 693-710.
http://www.tandfonline.com/
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075070701685114 [16] Clegg, S., & McAuley, J. (2005). Conceptualising Middle Management in Higher Education: A Multifaceted Discourse. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 27, 9-34,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600800500045786 [17] D’Amico, R., Vermigli, P., & Canetto, S. S. (2011). Publication Productivity and Career Advancement by Female and Male Psychology Faculty: The Case of Italy. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 175-184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022570 [18] Davies, J., Hides, M. T., & Casey, S. (2001). Leadership in Higher Education. Total Quality Management, 12, 1025-1030,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09544120120096197 [19] Deem, R. (1998). “New Managerialism” and Higher Education: The Management of Performances and Cultures in Universities in the United Kingdom. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 8, 47-70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0962021980020014 [20] Defazio, D., Lockett, A., & Wright, D. M. (2009). Funding Incentives, Collaborative Dynamics and Scientific Productivity: Evidence from the EU Framework Program. Research Policy, 38, 293-305.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2008.11.008 [21] del Sordo, C., Orelli, R. L., Padovani, E., & Gardini, S. (2012). Assessing Global Performance in Universities: An Application of Balanced Scorecard. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 4793-4797.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.336 [22] Deming, W. E. (1982). Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Center for Advanced Engineering Study. [23] ECU (Equality Challenge Unit) (2015). Athena SWAN Charter.
http://www.ecu.ac.uk/equality-charter-marks/athena-swan/ [24] Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., Uzzi, B., & Alonzo, J. (1994). The Paradox of Critical Mass for Women in Science. Science, 266, 51-54.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.7939644 [25] Garforth, L., & Kerr, A. (2009). Women and Science: What’s the Problem? Social Politics, 16, 379-403.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxp015 [26] Gayle, D. J., Tewarie, B., & White, A. Q. (2003). Governance in the Twenty-First-Century University: Approaches to Effective Leadership and Strategic Management: ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. [27] Gibbons, M. (1998). Higher Education Relevance in the 21st Century. Washington DC: World Bank. [28] Goffee, R., & Jones, G. (2009). Clever: Leading Your Smartest, Most Creative People. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press. [29] Goleman, D. (1997). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam. [30] Hamel, G. (2009). Moonshots for Management. Harvard Business Review, 87, 91-98. [31] Heifetz, R. A., & Laurie, D. L. (1997). The Work of Leadership. Harvard Business Review, 75, 124-134. [32] Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1969). Life Cycle Theory of Leadership. Training Development, 23, 26-34. [33] Herzberg, F. (1976). One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? Harvard Business Review, 81, 87-96. [34] Huy, Q. M. (2001). In Praise of Middle Managers. Harvard Business Review, 79, 72-79. [35] Kanter, R. M. (2003). Leadership and the Psychology of Turnarounds. Harvard Business Review, 81, 58-67. [36] Kennedy, C. (1994). Managing with the Gurus. London: Random House. [37] Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading Change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. [38] Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The Leadership Challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. [39] Krantz, J., & Gilmore, T. N. (1990). The Splitting of Leadership and Management as a Social Defense. Human Relations, 43, 183-204.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872679004300206 [40] Liefner, I. (2003). Funding, Resource Allocation, and Performance in Higher Education Systems. Higher Education, 46, 469-489.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1027381906977 [41] Macdonald, J. (1998). Calling a Halt to Mindless Change. New York: American Management Association International. [42] McGregor, D. M. (1957). The Human Side of Enterprise. Management Review, 46, 22-28. [43] Middlehurst, R. (1999). New Realities for Leadership and Governance in Higher Education? Tertiary Education and Management, 5, 307-329.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13583883.1999.9966999 [44] Middlehurst, R. (2004). Changing Internal Governance: A Discussion of Leadership Roles and Management Structures in UK Universities. Higher Education Quarterly, 58, 258-279.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2273.2004.00273.x [45] Mintzberg, H. (2009a). Managing. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. [46] Mintzberg, H. (2009b). Rebuilding Companies as Communities. Harvard Business Review, 87, 140-143. [47] Montesinos, P., Carot, J. M., Martinez, J.-M., & Mora, F. (2008). Third Mission Ranking for World Class Universities: Beyond Teaching and Research. Higher Education in Europe, 33. [48] Oakland, J. S. (2001). Total Organizational Excellence; Achieving World Class Performance. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. [49] Peters, T., & Waterman, R. H. (1982). In Search of Excellence. New York: Harper Row. [50] Robinson, W. L. (1974). Conscious Competency—The Mark of a Competent Instructor. The Personnel Journal—Baltimore, 53, 538-539 [51] Rummler, G., & Bache, A. (1995). Improving Performance: How to Manage the White Space in the Organization Chart. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. [52] Schofer, E., & Meyer, J. W. (2005). The Worldwide Expansion of Higher Education in the Twentieth Century. American Sociological Review, 70, 898-920.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000602 [53] Scholtes, P. R. (1998). The Leader’s Handbook: Making Things Happen, Getting Things Done. New York: McGraw Hill. [54] Seddon, J. (2003). Freedom from Command and Control. Buckingham: Vanguard Press. [55] Senge, P. (1990). The Fifth Discipline. New York: Doubleday. [56] Shewhart, W. (1931). Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product. New York: Van Nostrand Company. [57] Slater, R. (1999). Jack Welch and the GE Way: Management Insights and Leadership Secrets of the Legendary CEO. New York: McGraw-Hill. [58] Tam, M. (2001). Measuring Quality and Performance in Higher Education. Quality in Higher Education, 7, 47-54.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13538320120045076 [59] Tannenbaum, R., & Schmidt, W. H. (1973). How to Choose a Leadership Pattern. Harvard Business Review, 51, 162-180. [60] Tourish, D. (2008). Challenging the Transformational Agenda: Leadership Theory in Transition? Management Communication Quarterly, 21, 522-528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0893318907313713 [61] Womack, J. P., & Jones, D. T. (1996). Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth in Your Corporation. London: Simon & Schuster.
[1] Adair, J. (1979). Action-Centred Leadership. Aldershot, United Kingdom: Gower. [2] Alexander, F. K. (2000). The Changing Face of Accountability: Monitoring and Assessing Institutional Performance in Higher Education. The Journal of Higher Education, 71, 411-431.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2649146 [3] Altbach (2011). The Past, Present, and Future of the Research University. In P. G. Altbach, & J. Salmi, (Eds.), The Road to Academic Excellence (pp. 11-32). Washington DC: The World Bank. [4] Amey, M. J. (2006). Leadership in Higher Education, Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 38, 55-58. [5] Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (2000). Leadership Reconsidered: Engaging Higher Education in Social Change. Battle Creek, MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation. [6] Bass, B. M. (1997). Does the Transactional-Transformational Leadership Paradigm Transcend Organizational and National boundaries? American Psychologist, 52, 130-139.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.2.130 [7] Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Transformational Leadership and Organizational Culture. Public Administration Quarterly, 17, 112-121. [8] Bennis, W. (1999). The Leadership Advantage. Leader to Leader, 12, 18-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ltl.40619991205 [9] Bennis, W. (2009). On Becoming a Leader (Revised Edition). New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing. [10] Black, S. A., & Copsey, J. A. (2014a). Does Deming’s “System of Profound Knowledge” Apply to Leaders of Biodiversity Conservation? Open Journal of Leadership, 3, 53-65.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojl.2014.32006 [11] Black, S. A., & Copsey, J. A. (2014b). Purpose, Process, Knowledge and Dignity in Interdisciplinary Projects. Conservation Biology, 28, 1139-1141.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12344 [12] Black, S. A., Groombridge, J. J., & Jones, C. G. (2011). Leadership and Conservation Effectiveness: Finding a Better Way to Lead. Conservation Letters, 4, 329-339.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00184.x [13] Black, S. A., Groombridge, J. J., & Jones, C. G. (2013). Using Better Management Thinking to Improve Conservation Effectiveness. ISRN Biodiversity, 2013, Article ID: 784701. [14] Black, S. A., Meredith, H. M. R., & Groombridge, J. J. (2011). Biodiversity Conservation: Applying New Criteria to Assess Excellence. Total Quality Management, 22, 1165-1178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2011.624766 [15] Bryman, A. (2007). Effective Leadership in Higher Education: A Literature Review. Studies in Higher Education, 32, 693-710.
http://www.tandfonline.com/
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075070701685114 [16] Clegg, S., & McAuley, J. (2005). Conceptualising Middle Management in Higher Education: A Multifaceted Discourse. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 27, 9-34,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600800500045786 [17] D’Amico, R., Vermigli, P., & Canetto, S. S. (2011). Publication Productivity and Career Advancement by Female and Male Psychology Faculty: The Case of Italy. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 175-184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022570 [18] Davies, J., Hides, M. T., & Casey, S. (2001). Leadership in Higher Education. Total Quality Management, 12, 1025-1030,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09544120120096197 [19] Deem, R. (1998). “New Managerialism” and Higher Education: The Management of Performances and Cultures in Universities in the United Kingdom. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 8, 47-70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0962021980020014 [20] Defazio, D., Lockett, A., & Wright, D. M. (2009). Funding Incentives, Collaborative Dynamics and Scientific Productivity: Evidence from the EU Framework Program. Research Policy, 38, 293-305.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2008.11.008 [21] del Sordo, C., Orelli, R. L., Padovani, E., & Gardini, S. (2012). Assessing Global Performance in Universities: An Application of Balanced Scorecard. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 4793-4797.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.336 [22] Deming, W. E. (1982). Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Center for Advanced Engineering Study. [23] ECU (Equality Challenge Unit) (2015). Athena SWAN Charter.
http://www.ecu.ac.uk/equality-charter-marks/athena-swan/ [24] Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., Uzzi, B., & Alonzo, J. (1994). The Paradox of Critical Mass for Women in Science. Science, 266, 51-54.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.7939644 [25] Garforth, L., & Kerr, A. (2009). Women and Science: What’s the Problem? Social Politics, 16, 379-403.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxp015 [26] Gayle, D. J., Tewarie, B., & White, A. Q. (2003). Governance in the Twenty-First-Century University: Approaches to Effective Leadership and Strategic Management: ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. [27] Gibbons, M. (1998). Higher Education Relevance in the 21st Century. Washington DC: World Bank. [28] Goffee, R., & Jones, G. (2009). Clever: Leading Your Smartest, Most Creative People. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press. [29] Goleman, D. (1997). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam. [30] Hamel, G. (2009). Moonshots for Management. Harvard Business Review, 87, 91-98. [31] Heifetz, R. A., & Laurie, D. L. (1997). The Work of Leadership. Harvard Business Review, 75, 124-134. [32] Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1969). Life Cycle Theory of Leadership. Training Development, 23, 26-34. [33] Herzberg, F. (1976). One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? Harvard Business Review, 81, 87-96. [34] Huy, Q. M. (2001). In Praise of Middle Managers. Harvard Business Review, 79, 72-79. [35] Kanter, R. M. (2003). Leadership and the Psychology of Turnarounds. Harvard Business Review, 81, 58-67. [36] Kennedy, C. (1994). Managing with the Gurus. London: Random House. [37] Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading Change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. [38] Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The Leadership Challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. [39] Krantz, J., & Gilmore, T. N. (1990). The Splitting of Leadership and Management as a Social Defense. Human Relations, 43, 183-204.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872679004300206 [40] Liefner, I. (2003). Funding, Resource Allocation, and Performance in Higher Education Systems. Higher Education, 46, 469-489.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1027381906977 [41] Macdonald, J. (1998). Calling a Halt to Mindless Change. New York: American Management Association International. [42] McGregor, D. M. (1957). The Human Side of Enterprise. Management Review, 46, 22-28. [43] Middlehurst, R. (1999). New Realities for Leadership and Governance in Higher Education? Tertiary Education and Management, 5, 307-329.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13583883.1999.9966999 [44] Middlehurst, R. (2004). Changing Internal Governance: A Discussion of Leadership Roles and Management Structures in UK Universities. Higher Education Quarterly, 58, 258-279.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2273.2004.00273.x [45] Mintzberg, H. (2009a). Managing. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. [46] Mintzberg, H. (2009b). Rebuilding Companies as Communities. Harvard Business Review, 87, 140-143. [47] Montesinos, P., Carot, J. M., Martinez, J.-M., & Mora, F. (2008). Third Mission Ranking for World Class Universities: Beyond Teaching and Research. Higher Education in Europe, 33. [48] Oakland, J. S. (2001). Total Organizational Excellence; Achieving World Class Performance. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. [49] Peters, T., & Waterman, R. H. (1982). In Search of Excellence. New York: Harper Row. [50] Robinson, W. L. (1974). Conscious Competency—The Mark of a Competent Instructor. The Personnel Journal—Baltimore, 53, 538-539 [51] Rummler, G., & Bache, A. (1995). Improving Performance: How to Manage the White Space in the Organization Chart. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. [52] Schofer, E., & Meyer, J. W. (2005). The Worldwide Expansion of Higher Education in the Twentieth Century. American Sociological Review, 70, 898-920.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000602 [53] Scholtes, P. R. (1998). The Leader’s Handbook: Making Things Happen, Getting Things Done. New York: McGraw Hill. [54] Seddon, J. (2003). Freedom from Command and Control. Buckingham: Vanguard Press. [55] Senge, P. (1990). The Fifth Discipline. New York: Doubleday. [56] Shewhart, W. (1931). Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product. New York: Van Nostrand Company. [57] Slater, R. (1999). Jack Welch and the GE Way: Management Insights and Leadership Secrets of the Legendary CEO. New York: McGraw-Hill. [58] Tam, M. (2001). Measuring Quality and Performance in Higher Education. Quality in Higher Education, 7, 47-54.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13538320120045076 [59] Tannenbaum, R., & Schmidt, W. H. (1973). How to Choose a Leadership Pattern. Harvard Business Review, 51, 162-180. [60] Tourish, D. (2008). Challenging the Transformational Agenda: Leadership Theory in Transition? Management Communication Quarterly, 21, 522-528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0893318907313713 [61] Womack, J. P., & Jones, D. T. (1996). Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth in Your Corporation. London: Simon & Schuster.