Progress of Non-Aqueous Electrolyte for Li-Air Batteries
Affiliation(s)
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering School of Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, China.
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering School of Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, China.
ABSTRACT
Li-air batteries have received much attention in the past several years because of their large theoretical specific energy density, stable output voltage, cost-effective, energy-efficient and pollution free, and have broad application prospects. If it is successfully developed, the battery could be an excellent energy storage device for renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and tidal energy, which brings a prospect for human to solve the problem of environment pollution and energy crisis. But the electrolyte is a crucial component of Li-air battery and the electrochemical performance of the battery is determined by electrolyte to a great extent. Due to the react violently between lithium and water, it is not practical for Li-air battery to use directly an aqueous electrolyte unless the anode can be protected from degradation. In this review, we presented the latest research progress on the non-aqueous electrolyte, i.e. organic electrolyte, ionic liquid and solid electrolyte. We elaborated the influence of solvents, and possible additives, and/or their combination Li-air battery’s performance. Finally, we provided insights into the prospect of non-aqueous electrolyte for Li-air battery.
Li-air batteries have received much attention in the past several years because of their large theoretical specific energy density, stable output voltage, cost-effective, energy-efficient and pollution free, and have broad application prospects. If it is successfully developed, the battery could be an excellent energy storage device for renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and tidal energy, which brings a prospect for human to solve the problem of environment pollution and energy crisis. But the electrolyte is a crucial component of Li-air battery and the electrochemical performance of the battery is determined by electrolyte to a great extent. Due to the react violently between lithium and water, it is not practical for Li-air battery to use directly an aqueous electrolyte unless the anode can be protected from degradation. In this review, we presented the latest research progress on the non-aqueous electrolyte, i.e. organic electrolyte, ionic liquid and solid electrolyte. We elaborated the influence of solvents, and possible additives, and/or their combination Li-air battery’s performance. Finally, we provided insights into the prospect of non-aqueous electrolyte for Li-air battery.
Cite this paper
Liu, X. , Cui, B. , Liu, S. and Chen, Y. (2015) Progress of Non-Aqueous Electrolyte for Li-Air Batteries. Journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, 3, 1-8. doi: 10.4236/msce.2015.35001.
Liu, X. , Cui, B. , Liu, S. and Chen, Y. (2015) Progress of Non-Aqueous Electrolyte for Li-Air Batteries. Journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, 3, 1-8. doi: 10.4236/msce.2015.35001.
References
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/451652a [2] Heng, F. and Chen, J. (2012) Metal-Air Batteries: From Oxygen Reduction Electrochemistry to Cathode Catalysts. Chemical Society Reviews, 41, 2172-2192.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c1cs15228a [3] Lee, S., Kim, S.T., Cao, R., et al. (2011) Metal-Air Batteries with High Energy Density: Li-Air versus Zn-Air. Advanced Energy Materials, 1, 34-50. [4] Abraham, K.M. and Jiang, Z. (1996) A Polymer Electrolyte—Based Rechargeable Lithium/Oxygen Battery. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 143, 1-5.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c1ee01500a [7] Lu, Y.-C., Gasteiger, H.A., Parent, M.C., Chiloyan, V. and Shao-Horn, Y. (2010) The Influence of Catalysts on Discharge and Charge Voltages of Rechargeable Li-Oxygen Batteries. Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters, 13, A69- A72.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.06.180 [10] Debart, A., Paterson, A.J., Bao, J. and Bruce, P.G. (2008) Alpha-MnO2 Nanowires: A Catalyst for the O-2 Electrode in Rechargeable Lithium Batteries. Angew. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 47, 4521-4524.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.200705648 [11] Lu, Y.-C., Xu, Z.C., Gasteiger, H.A., et al. (2010) Platinum-Gold Nanoparticles: A Highly Active Bifunctional Elec- trocatalyst for Rechargeable Lithium-Air Batteries. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 132, 12170-12171.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja1036572 [12] Zhang, S.S., Foster, D. and Read, J. (2010) Discharge Characteristic of a Non-Aqueous Electrolyte Li/O2 Battery. Journal of Power Sources, 195, 1235-1240.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.08.088 [13] Zhang, G.Q., Zheng, J.P., Liang, R., et al. (2010) Lithium-Air Batteries Using SWNT/CNF Buckypapers as Air Electrodes. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2010, 157, A953-A956.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.3446852 [14] Cheng, H. and Scott, K. (2010) Carbon-Supported Manganese Oxide Nanocatalysts for Rechargeable Lithium-Air Batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 195, 1370-1374.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.09.030 [15] Mizuno, F., Nakanishi, S., Kotani, Y., Yokoishi, S. and Iba, H. (2010) Rechargeable Li-Air Batteries with Carbonate- Based Liquid Electrolytes. Electrochemistry, 78, 403-405.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.78.403 [16] Lu, Y.-C., Gallant, B.M., Kwabi, D.G., et al. (2013) Lithium-Oxygen Batteries: Bridging Mechanistic Understanding and Battery Performance. Energy & Environmental Science, 6, 750-768.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3ee23966g [17] Freunberger, S.A., Chen, Y.H., Peng, Z.Q., Griffin, J.M., Hardwick, L.J., Bardé, F., et al. (2011) Reactions in the Rechargeable Lithium-O2 Battery with Alkyl Carbonate Electrolytes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 133, 8040-8047.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja2021747 [18] Trahan, M.J., Mukerjee, S., Plichta, E.J. Hendrickson M.A. and Abraham, K.M. (2013) Cobalt Phthalocyanine Cata- lyzed Lithium-Air Batteries. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 160, A1577-A1586.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.118309jes [19] Chen, Y., Freunberger, S.A., Peng, Z., Bardé, F. and Bruce, P.G. (2012) Li-O2 Battery with a Dimethylformamide Electrolyte. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 134, 7952-7957.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja302178w [20] Xu, K. (2004) Nonaqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries. Chemical Reviews, 104, 4303- 4418.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr030203g [21] Xu, W., Xu, K., Viswanathan, V.V., Towne, S.A., Hardy, J.S., Xiao, J., et al. (2011) Reaction Mechanisms for the Limited Reversibility of Li-O2 Chemistry in Organic Carbonate Electrolytes. Journal of Power Sources, 196, 9631- 9639.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.06.099 [22] Xiao, J., Hu, J., Wang, D., Hu, D.H., Xu, W., Graff, G.L., et al. (2011) Investigation of the Rechargeability of Li-O2 Batteries in Non-Aqueous Electrolyte. Journal of Power Sources, 196, 5674-5678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.060 [23] Veith, G.M., Dudney, N.J., Howe, J. and Nanda, J. (2011) Spectroscopic Characterization of Solid Discharge Products in Li-Air Cells with Aprotic Carbonate Electrolytes. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 115, 14325-14333. [24] McCloskey, B.D., Bethune, D.S., Shelby, R.M., Girishkumar, G. and Luntz, A.C. (2011) Solvents’ Critical Role in Nonaqueous Lithium-Oxygen Battery Electrochemistry. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2, 1161-1166.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jz200352v [25] Freunberger, S.A., Chen, Y., Drewett, N.E., Hardwick, L.J., Bardé, F. and Bruce, P.G. (2011) The Lithium-Oxygen Battery with Ether-Based Electrolytes. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 50, 8609-8613.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.201102357 [26] Bryantsev, V.S. and Faglioni, F. (2012) Predicting Autoxidation Stability of Ether- and Amide-Based Electrolyte Solvents for Li-Air Batteries. Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 116, 7128-7138.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp301537w [27] Laoire, C.O., Mukerjee, S. and Abraham, K.M. (2010) Influence of Nonaqueous Solvents on the Electrochemistry of Oxygen in the Rechargeable Lithium-Air Battery. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 114, 9178-9186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp102019y [28] Xu, D., Wang, Z., Xu, J., Zhang, L.L. and Zhang, X.B. (2012) Novel DMSO-Based Electrolyte for High Performance Rechargeable Li-O2 Batteries. Chemical Communications, 48, 6948-6950.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2cc32844e [29] Peng, Z., Freunberger, S.A., Chen, Y. and Bruce, P.G. (2012) A Reversible and Higher-Rate Li-O2 Battery. Science, 337, 563-566.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1223985 [30] Zhang, Z., Lu, J., Assary, R.S., Du, P., Wang, H.H., Sun, Y.K., et al. (2011) Increased Stability toward Oxygen Reduction Products for Lithium-Air Batteries with Oligoether-Functionalized Silane Electrolytes. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 115, 25535-25542.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp2087412 [31] Li, F.J., Zhang, T. and Zhou, H.S. (2013) Challenges of Non-Aqueous Li-O2 Batteries: Electrolytes, Catalysts, and Anodes. Energy & Environmental Science, 6, 1125-1141.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3ee00053b [32] Younesi, R., Hahlin, M., Bjorefors, F., Johansson, P. and Edstrom, K. (2012) Li-O2 Battery Degradation by Lithium Peroxide (Li2O2): A Model Study. Chemistry of Materials, 25, 77-84.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cm303226g [33] Veith, G.M., Nanda, J., Delmau, L.H. and Dudney, N.J. (2012) Influence of Lithium Salts on the Discharge Chemistry of Li-Air Cells. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 3, 1242-1247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jz300430s [34] Xu, W., Hu, J.Z., Engelhard, M.H., Towne, S.A., Hardy, J.S., Xiao, J., et al. (2012) The Stability of Organic Solvents and Carbon Electrode in Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 215, 240-247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.05.021 [35] Suo, L., Hu, Y.S., Li, H., Armand, M. and Chen, L. (2013) A New Class of Solvent-in-Salt Electrolyte for High- Energy Rechargeable Metallic Lithium Batteries. Nature Communications, 4, 1-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2513 [36] Wang, Z.L., Xu, D., Xu, J.J. and Zhang, X.B. (2014) Oxygen Electrocatalysts in Metal-Air Batteries: From Aqueous to Nonaqueous Electrolytes. Chemical Society Reviews, 43, 7746-7786.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60248F [37] Xie, B., Lee, H.S., Li, H., Yang, X.Q., McBreen, J. and Chen, L.Q. (2008) New Electrolytes Using Li2O or Li2O2 Oxides and Tris(pentafluorophenyl) Borane as Boron Based Anion Receptor for Lithium Batteries. Electrochemistry Communications, 10, 1195-1197.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2008.05.043 [38] Wang, Y., Zheng, D., Yang, X.Q. and Qu, D.Y. (2011) High Rate Oxygen Reduction in Non-Aqueous Electrolyte with the Addition of Perfluorinated Additives. Energy & Environmental Science, 4, 3697-3702. [39] Zhang, S. and Read, J. (2011) Partially Fluorinated Solvent as a Co-Solvent for the Non-Aqueous Electrolyte of Li/Air Battery. Journal of Power Sources, 196, 2867-2870.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.021 [40] Mizuno, F., Nakanishi, S., Shirasawa, A., Takechi, K., Shiga, T., Nishikoori, H. and Iba, H. (2014) Design of Non- Aqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Rechargeable Li-O2 Batteries. Electrochemistry, 79, 876-881.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.79.876 [41] Herranz, J., Garsuch, A. and Gasteiger, H.A. (2012) Using Rotating Ring Disc Electrode Voltammetry to Quantify the Superoxide Radical Stability of Aprotic Li-Air Battery Electrolytes. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 116, 19084-19094.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp304277z [42] Li, F.J., Kitaura, H. and Zhou, H.S. (2013) The Pursuit of Rechargeable Solid-State Li-Air Batteries. Energy & Environmental Science, 6, 2302-2311.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3ee40702k [43] Croce, F., Appetecchi, G.B., Persi, L. and Scrosati, B. (1998) Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries. Nature, 394, 456-458.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/28818 [44] Kumar, J. and Kumar, B. (2009) Development of Membranes and a Study of Their Interfaces for Rechargeable Lithium-Air Battery. Journal of Power Sources, 194, 1113-1119.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.06.020
[1] Armand, M. and Tarascon, J.-M. (2008) Building Better Batteries. Nature, 451, 652-657.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/451652a [2] Heng, F. and Chen, J. (2012) Metal-Air Batteries: From Oxygen Reduction Electrochemistry to Cathode Catalysts. Chemical Society Reviews, 41, 2172-2192.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c1cs15228a [3] Lee, S., Kim, S.T., Cao, R., et al. (2011) Metal-Air Batteries with High Energy Density: Li-Air versus Zn-Air. Advanced Energy Materials, 1, 34-50. [4] Abraham, K.M. and Jiang, Z. (1996) A Polymer Electrolyte—Based Rechargeable Lithium/Oxygen Battery. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 143, 1-5.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.1836378 [5] Girishkumar, G., McCloskey, B., Luntz, A., Swanson, S. and Wilcke, W. (2010) Lithium-Air Battery: Promise and Challenges. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 1, 2193-2203.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jz1005384 [6] Lu, Y.-C., Kwabi, D.G., Yao, K.P.C., et al. (2011) The Discharge Rate Capability of Rechargeable Li-O2 Batteries. Energy & Environmental Science, 4, 2999-3007.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c1ee01500a [7] Lu, Y.-C., Gasteiger, H.A., Parent, M.C., Chiloyan, V. and Shao-Horn, Y. (2010) The Influence of Catalysts on Discharge and Charge Voltages of Rechargeable Li-Oxygen Batteries. Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters, 13, A69- A72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.3363047 [8] Goodenough, J.B. and Kim, Y. (2009) Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries. Chemistry of Materials, 22, 587-603.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cm901452z [9] Debart, A., Bao, J., Armstrong, G. and Bruce, P.G. (2010) An O2 Cathode for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries: The Effect of a Catalyst. Journal of Power Sources, 174, 1177-1182.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.06.180 [10] Debart, A., Paterson, A.J., Bao, J. and Bruce, P.G. (2008) Alpha-MnO2 Nanowires: A Catalyst for the O-2 Electrode in Rechargeable Lithium Batteries. Angew. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 47, 4521-4524.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.200705648 [11] Lu, Y.-C., Xu, Z.C., Gasteiger, H.A., et al. (2010) Platinum-Gold Nanoparticles: A Highly Active Bifunctional Elec- trocatalyst for Rechargeable Lithium-Air Batteries. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 132, 12170-12171.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja1036572 [12] Zhang, S.S., Foster, D. and Read, J. (2010) Discharge Characteristic of a Non-Aqueous Electrolyte Li/O2 Battery. Journal of Power Sources, 195, 1235-1240.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.08.088 [13] Zhang, G.Q., Zheng, J.P., Liang, R., et al. (2010) Lithium-Air Batteries Using SWNT/CNF Buckypapers as Air Electrodes. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 2010, 157, A953-A956.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.3446852 [14] Cheng, H. and Scott, K. (2010) Carbon-Supported Manganese Oxide Nanocatalysts for Rechargeable Lithium-Air Batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 195, 1370-1374.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.09.030 [15] Mizuno, F., Nakanishi, S., Kotani, Y., Yokoishi, S. and Iba, H. (2010) Rechargeable Li-Air Batteries with Carbonate- Based Liquid Electrolytes. Electrochemistry, 78, 403-405.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.78.403 [16] Lu, Y.-C., Gallant, B.M., Kwabi, D.G., et al. (2013) Lithium-Oxygen Batteries: Bridging Mechanistic Understanding and Battery Performance. Energy & Environmental Science, 6, 750-768.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3ee23966g [17] Freunberger, S.A., Chen, Y.H., Peng, Z.Q., Griffin, J.M., Hardwick, L.J., Bardé, F., et al. (2011) Reactions in the Rechargeable Lithium-O2 Battery with Alkyl Carbonate Electrolytes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 133, 8040-8047.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja2021747 [18] Trahan, M.J., Mukerjee, S., Plichta, E.J. Hendrickson M.A. and Abraham, K.M. (2013) Cobalt Phthalocyanine Cata- lyzed Lithium-Air Batteries. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 160, A1577-A1586.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.118309jes [19] Chen, Y., Freunberger, S.A., Peng, Z., Bardé, F. and Bruce, P.G. (2012) Li-O2 Battery with a Dimethylformamide Electrolyte. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 134, 7952-7957.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja302178w [20] Xu, K. (2004) Nonaqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Rechargeable Batteries. Chemical Reviews, 104, 4303- 4418.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr030203g [21] Xu, W., Xu, K., Viswanathan, V.V., Towne, S.A., Hardy, J.S., Xiao, J., et al. (2011) Reaction Mechanisms for the Limited Reversibility of Li-O2 Chemistry in Organic Carbonate Electrolytes. Journal of Power Sources, 196, 9631- 9639.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.06.099 [22] Xiao, J., Hu, J., Wang, D., Hu, D.H., Xu, W., Graff, G.L., et al. (2011) Investigation of the Rechargeability of Li-O2 Batteries in Non-Aqueous Electrolyte. Journal of Power Sources, 196, 5674-5678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.060 [23] Veith, G.M., Dudney, N.J., Howe, J. and Nanda, J. (2011) Spectroscopic Characterization of Solid Discharge Products in Li-Air Cells with Aprotic Carbonate Electrolytes. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 115, 14325-14333. [24] McCloskey, B.D., Bethune, D.S., Shelby, R.M., Girishkumar, G. and Luntz, A.C. (2011) Solvents’ Critical Role in Nonaqueous Lithium-Oxygen Battery Electrochemistry. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2, 1161-1166.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jz200352v [25] Freunberger, S.A., Chen, Y., Drewett, N.E., Hardwick, L.J., Bardé, F. and Bruce, P.G. (2011) The Lithium-Oxygen Battery with Ether-Based Electrolytes. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 50, 8609-8613.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.201102357 [26] Bryantsev, V.S. and Faglioni, F. (2012) Predicting Autoxidation Stability of Ether- and Amide-Based Electrolyte Solvents for Li-Air Batteries. Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 116, 7128-7138.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp301537w [27] Laoire, C.O., Mukerjee, S. and Abraham, K.M. (2010) Influence of Nonaqueous Solvents on the Electrochemistry of Oxygen in the Rechargeable Lithium-Air Battery. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 114, 9178-9186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp102019y [28] Xu, D., Wang, Z., Xu, J., Zhang, L.L. and Zhang, X.B. (2012) Novel DMSO-Based Electrolyte for High Performance Rechargeable Li-O2 Batteries. Chemical Communications, 48, 6948-6950.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2cc32844e [29] Peng, Z., Freunberger, S.A., Chen, Y. and Bruce, P.G. (2012) A Reversible and Higher-Rate Li-O2 Battery. Science, 337, 563-566.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1223985 [30] Zhang, Z., Lu, J., Assary, R.S., Du, P., Wang, H.H., Sun, Y.K., et al. (2011) Increased Stability toward Oxygen Reduction Products for Lithium-Air Batteries with Oligoether-Functionalized Silane Electrolytes. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 115, 25535-25542.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp2087412 [31] Li, F.J., Zhang, T. and Zhou, H.S. (2013) Challenges of Non-Aqueous Li-O2 Batteries: Electrolytes, Catalysts, and Anodes. Energy & Environmental Science, 6, 1125-1141.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3ee00053b [32] Younesi, R., Hahlin, M., Bjorefors, F., Johansson, P. and Edstrom, K. (2012) Li-O2 Battery Degradation by Lithium Peroxide (Li2O2): A Model Study. Chemistry of Materials, 25, 77-84.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cm303226g [33] Veith, G.M., Nanda, J., Delmau, L.H. and Dudney, N.J. (2012) Influence of Lithium Salts on the Discharge Chemistry of Li-Air Cells. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 3, 1242-1247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jz300430s [34] Xu, W., Hu, J.Z., Engelhard, M.H., Towne, S.A., Hardy, J.S., Xiao, J., et al. (2012) The Stability of Organic Solvents and Carbon Electrode in Nonaqueous Li-O2 Batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 215, 240-247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.05.021 [35] Suo, L., Hu, Y.S., Li, H., Armand, M. and Chen, L. (2013) A New Class of Solvent-in-Salt Electrolyte for High- Energy Rechargeable Metallic Lithium Batteries. Nature Communications, 4, 1-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2513 [36] Wang, Z.L., Xu, D., Xu, J.J. and Zhang, X.B. (2014) Oxygen Electrocatalysts in Metal-Air Batteries: From Aqueous to Nonaqueous Electrolytes. Chemical Society Reviews, 43, 7746-7786.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60248F [37] Xie, B., Lee, H.S., Li, H., Yang, X.Q., McBreen, J. and Chen, L.Q. (2008) New Electrolytes Using Li2O or Li2O2 Oxides and Tris(pentafluorophenyl) Borane as Boron Based Anion Receptor for Lithium Batteries. Electrochemistry Communications, 10, 1195-1197.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2008.05.043 [38] Wang, Y., Zheng, D., Yang, X.Q. and Qu, D.Y. (2011) High Rate Oxygen Reduction in Non-Aqueous Electrolyte with the Addition of Perfluorinated Additives. Energy & Environmental Science, 4, 3697-3702. [39] Zhang, S. and Read, J. (2011) Partially Fluorinated Solvent as a Co-Solvent for the Non-Aqueous Electrolyte of Li/Air Battery. Journal of Power Sources, 196, 2867-2870.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.021 [40] Mizuno, F., Nakanishi, S., Shirasawa, A., Takechi, K., Shiga, T., Nishikoori, H. and Iba, H. (2014) Design of Non- Aqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Rechargeable Li-O2 Batteries. Electrochemistry, 79, 876-881.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.79.876 [41] Herranz, J., Garsuch, A. and Gasteiger, H.A. (2012) Using Rotating Ring Disc Electrode Voltammetry to Quantify the Superoxide Radical Stability of Aprotic Li-Air Battery Electrolytes. Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 116, 19084-19094.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp304277z [42] Li, F.J., Kitaura, H. and Zhou, H.S. (2013) The Pursuit of Rechargeable Solid-State Li-Air Batteries. Energy & Environmental Science, 6, 2302-2311.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c3ee40702k [43] Croce, F., Appetecchi, G.B., Persi, L. and Scrosati, B. (1998) Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries. Nature, 394, 456-458.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/28818 [44] Kumar, J. and Kumar, B. (2009) Development of Membranes and a Study of Their Interfaces for Rechargeable Lithium-Air Battery. Journal of Power Sources, 194, 1113-1119.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.06.020