Family Meal- and Related-Practices in Families of Preschoolers: Differences by Family Income
Affiliation(s)
Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA.
Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA.
ABSTRACT
The present study asked parents of preschool-aged children from differing socioeconomic groups to complete a questionnaire regarding the frequency of specific behaviors that comprise the food environment. Participants were 94 mothers of preschool-age children who attended either Day Care (middle-income) or Head Start (low-income) programs. Many of the items tested showed similar characteristics for the food environment between the Head Start and Day Care centers, including the frequency that children were involved in meal preparation, the frequency that children were encouraged to finish the food on their plate, the frequency that a parent ate a meal at the table with the child, and the frequency of opportunities to try foods that the parents disliked themselves. Relative to the Head Start children, however, children attending Day Care were more restricted from eating desserts and salty snacks, more encouraged to try new foods, and more often consumed breakfast. Aside from characteristics of the food environment, children in Day Care spent more minutes in outdoor play and slept nearly an hour more each night, while those who attended Head Start spent more time watching television and playing video games. It is recommended that families make a better effort to create an optimal food environment for their children.
The present study asked parents of preschool-aged children from differing socioeconomic groups to complete a questionnaire regarding the frequency of specific behaviors that comprise the food environment. Participants were 94 mothers of preschool-age children who attended either Day Care (middle-income) or Head Start (low-income) programs. Many of the items tested showed similar characteristics for the food environment between the Head Start and Day Care centers, including the frequency that children were involved in meal preparation, the frequency that children were encouraged to finish the food on their plate, the frequency that a parent ate a meal at the table with the child, and the frequency of opportunities to try foods that the parents disliked themselves. Relative to the Head Start children, however, children attending Day Care were more restricted from eating desserts and salty snacks, more encouraged to try new foods, and more often consumed breakfast. Aside from characteristics of the food environment, children in Day Care spent more minutes in outdoor play and slept nearly an hour more each night, while those who attended Head Start spent more time watching television and playing video games. It is recommended that families make a better effort to create an optimal food environment for their children.
Cite this paper
Nowlin, E. , Worobey, J. and Worobey, H. (2015) Family Meal- and Related-Practices in Families of Preschoolers: Differences by Family Income. Creative Education, 6, 540-547. doi: 10.4236/ce.2015.65054.
Nowlin, E. , Worobey, J. and Worobey, H. (2015) Family Meal- and Related-Practices in Families of Preschoolers: Differences by Family Income. Creative Education, 6, 540-547. doi: 10.4236/ce.2015.65054.
References
[1] Affenito, S. G., Thompson, D. R., Barton, B. A., Franko, D. L., Daniels, S. R., Obarzanek, E., Schreiber, G. B., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (2005). Breakfast Consumption by African-American and White Adolescent Girls Correlates Positively with Calcium and Fiber Intake and Negatively with Body Mass Index. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105, 938-945.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.03.003 [2] American Academy of Pediatrics (2006). Active Healthy Living: Prevention of Childhood Obesity through Increased Physical Activity. Pediatrics, 117, 1834.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0472 [3] American Academy of Pediatrics (2013). Media and Children.
http://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/aap-health-initiatives/
Pages/Media-and-Children.aspx [4] Andaya, A. A., Arredondo, E. M., Alcaraz, J. E., Lindsay, S. P., & Elder, J. P. (2011). The Association between Family Meals, TV Viewing during Meals, and Fruit and Vegetables and Soda and Chips Intake among Latino Children. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 43, 308-315. [5] Anderson, S. E., & Whitaker, R. C. (2010). Household Routines and Obesity in US Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatrics, 125, 420-428.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0417 [6] Arredondo, E. M., Elder, J. P., Ayala, G. X., Campbell, N., Baquero, B., & Duerksen, S. (2006). Is Parenting Style Related to Children’s Healthy Eating and Physical Activity in Latino Families? Health Education Research, 21, 862-871.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/her/cyl110 [7] Baughcum, A. E., Powers, S. W., Johnson, S. B., Chamberlain, L. A., Deeks, C. M., Jain, A., & Whitaker, R. C. (2001). Maternal Feeding Practices and Beliefs and Their Relationships to Overweight in Early Childhood. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 391-408.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200112000-00007 [8] Benton, D. (2004). Role of Parents in the Determination of the Food Preferences of Children and the Development of Obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 28, 858-869.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802532 [9] Brown, K. A., Ogden, J., Vögele, C., & Gibson, E. L. (2008). The Role of Parental Control Practices in Explaining Children’s Diet and BMI. Appetite, 50, 252-259.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.010 [10] Burnier, D., Dubois, L., & Girard, M. (2011). Arguments at Mealtime and Child Energy Intake. Journal of Nutrition Education & Behavior, 43, 473-481.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2011.01.005 [11] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Sleep and Sleep Disorders.
http://www.cdc.gov/sleep/about_sleep/how_much_sleep.htm [12] Christian, M. S., Evans, C., Hancock, N., Nyjkaer, C., & Cade, J. (2013). Family Meals Can Help Children Reach Their 5 a Day: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Children’s Dietary Intake from London Primary Schools. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 67, 332-338.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-201604 [13] Dreyer, C. A., & Dreyer, A. S. (1973). Family Dinner Time as a Unique Behavior Habitat. Family Process, 12, 291-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1973.00291.x [14] Evers, C. (1997). Empower Children to Develop Healthful Eating Habits. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 97, S116.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(97)00742-6 [15] Feiring, C., & Lewis, M. (1987). The Ecology of Some Middle Class Families at Dinner. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 10, 377-390.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016502548701000307 [16] Fiese, B. H., Hammons, A., & Grigsby-Toussaint, D. (2012). Family Mealtimes: A Contextual Approach to Understanding Childhood Obesity. Economics and Human Biology Journal, 10, 365-374.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2012.04.004 [17] Fisher, J. O., & Birch, L. L. (2002). Eating in the Absence of Hunger and Overweight in Girls from 5 to 7 y of Age. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76, 226-231. [18] Fulkerson, J. A., Larson, N., Horning, M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2014). A Review of the Associations between Family or Shared Meal Frequency and Dietary and Weight Status Outcomes across the Lifespan. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 46, 2-19.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2013.07.012 [19] Hammons, A. J., & Fiese, B. H. (2011). Is Frequency of Shared Family Meals Related to the Nutritional Health of Children and Adolescents? Pediatrics, 127, 1565-1574.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1440 [20] Hill, C., Llewellyn, C. H., Saxton, J., Webber, L., Semmler, C., Carnell, S., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Boniface, D., & Wardle, J. (2008). Adiposity and ‘Eating in the Absence of Hunger’ in Children. International Journal of Obesity, 32, 1499-1505.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2008.113 [21] Hughes, S. O., Anderson, C. B., Power, T. G., Micheli, N., Jaramillo, S., & Nicklas, T. A. (2006). Measuring Feeding in Low-Income African-American and Hispanic Parents. Appetite, 4, 215-223.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bar.2006.9991 [22] Hughes, S. O., Shewchuck, R. M., Baslin, M. L., Nicklas, T. A., & Qu, H. (2008). Indulgent Feeding Style and Children’s Weight Status in Preschool. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 29, 403-410.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e318182a976 [23] Jansen, P. W., Roza, S. J., Jaddoe, V. W., Mackenbach, J. D., Raat, H., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., & Tiemeier, H. (2012). Children’s Eating Behavior, Feeding Practices of Parents and Weight Problems in Early Childhood: Results from the Population-Based Generation R Study. International Journal of Behavior Nutrition, and Physical Activity, 9, 130-141.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-130 [24] Koszewski, W., Behrends, D., Nichols, M., Sehi, N., & Jones, G. (2011). Patterns of Family Meals and Food and Nutrition Intake in Limited Resource Families. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 39, 431-441. [25] Liberatos, P., Link, B. G., & Kelsey, J. L. (1988). The Measurement of Social Class in Epidemiology. Epidemiologic Reviews, 10, 87-121. [26] Martin-Biggers, J., Spaccarotell, K., Berhaupt-Glickstein, A., Hongu, N., Worobey, J., & Byrd-Bredbenner, C. (2014). Come and Get It! A Discussion of Family Mealtime Literature and Factors Affecting Obesity Risk. Advances in Nutrition, 5, 235-247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/an.113.005116 [27] McIntosh, W. A. (1999). The Family Meal and Its Significance in Global Times. In R. Grew (Ed.), Food in Global History (pp. 217-239). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. [28] Moray, J., Fu, A., Brill, K., & Mayoral, M. S. (2007). Viewing Television While Eating Impairs the Ability to Accurately Estimate Total Amount of Food Consumed. Bariatric Nursing and Surgical Patient Care, 2, 71-76.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bar.2006.9991 [29] Murphy, J. M. (2007). Breakfast and Learning: An Updated Review. Journal of Current Nutrition and Food Science, 1, 3-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573401310703010003 [30] Neumark-Sztainer, D., Hannan, P., Story, M., Croll, J., & Perry, C. (2003). Family Meal Patterns: Associations with Sociodemographic Characteristics and Improved Intake among Adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 103, 317-322.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(02)00084-6 [31] New Jersey Head Start (2014).
http://www.benefits.gov/benefits/benefit-details/1926. [32] Patrick, H., Hennessy, E., McSpadden, K., & Oh, A. (2013). Parenting Styles and Practices in Children’s Obesogenic Behaviors: Scientific Gaps and Future Research Directions. Childhood Obesity, 9, S-73-S-86. [33] Patrick, H., Nicklas, T. A., Hughes, S. O., & Morales, M. (2005). The Benefits of Authoritative Feeding Style; Caregiver Feeding Styles and Children’s Food Consumption Patterns. Appetite, 44, 243-249.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2002.07.001 [34] Powers, S. W., Chamberlin, L. A., van Schaick, K. B., Sherman, S. N., & Whitaker, R. C. (2006). Maternal Feeding Strategies, Child Eating Behaviors, and Child BMI in Low-Income African-American Preschoolers. Obesity, 14, 2026-2033.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/oby.2006.237 [35] Skala, K., Chuang, R. J., Evans, A., Hedberg, A., Dave, J., & Sharma, S. (2012). Ethnic Differences in the Home Food Environment and Parental Food Practices among Families of Low-Income Hispanic and African-American Preschoolers. Journal of Immigrant Minority Health, 14, 1014-1022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10903-012-9575-9 [36] Spruijt-Metz, D., Lindquist, C. H., Birch, L. L., Fisher, J. O., & Goran, M. I. (2002). Relation between Mothers’ Child-Feeding Practices and Children’s Adiposity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75, 581-586. [37] Story, M., Kaphingst, K. M., Robinson-O’Brien, R., & Glanz, K. (2007) Creating Healthy Food and Eating Environments: Policy and Environmental Approaches. Annual Review of Public Health, 29, 253-272.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090926 [38] Taheri, S. (2006). The Link between Short Sleep Duration and Obesity: We Should Recommend More Sleep to Prevent Obesity. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 91, 881-884.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.093013 [39] Taveras, E. M., Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Berkey, C. S., Rockett, H. R. H., Field, A. E., Frazier, A. L., Colditz, G. A., & Gillman, M. W. (2005). Family Dinner and Adolescent Overweight. Obesity Research, 13, 900-906.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/oby.2005.104 [40] USDA (2011). About Us—MyPlate. United States Department of Agriculture.
http://www.choosemyplate.gov/about.html [41] Varela, R. E., Vernberg, E. M., Sanchez-Sosa, J. J., Riveros, A., Mitchell, M., & Mashunkashey, J. (2004). Parenting Style of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Caucasian-Non-Hispanic Families: Social Context and Cultural Influences. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 651-657.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.18.4.651 [42] Worobey, J., Borelli, A., Espinosa, C., & Worobey, H. S. (2013). Feeding Practices of Mothers from Varied Income and Racial/ Ethnic Groups. Early Child Development and Care, 183, 1661-1668.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.752735
[1] Affenito, S. G., Thompson, D. R., Barton, B. A., Franko, D. L., Daniels, S. R., Obarzanek, E., Schreiber, G. B., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (2005). Breakfast Consumption by African-American and White Adolescent Girls Correlates Positively with Calcium and Fiber Intake and Negatively with Body Mass Index. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105, 938-945.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.03.003 [2] American Academy of Pediatrics (2006). Active Healthy Living: Prevention of Childhood Obesity through Increased Physical Activity. Pediatrics, 117, 1834.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0472 [3] American Academy of Pediatrics (2013). Media and Children.
http://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/aap-health-initiatives/
Pages/Media-and-Children.aspx [4] Andaya, A. A., Arredondo, E. M., Alcaraz, J. E., Lindsay, S. P., & Elder, J. P. (2011). The Association between Family Meals, TV Viewing during Meals, and Fruit and Vegetables and Soda and Chips Intake among Latino Children. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 43, 308-315. [5] Anderson, S. E., & Whitaker, R. C. (2010). Household Routines and Obesity in US Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatrics, 125, 420-428.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0417 [6] Arredondo, E. M., Elder, J. P., Ayala, G. X., Campbell, N., Baquero, B., & Duerksen, S. (2006). Is Parenting Style Related to Children’s Healthy Eating and Physical Activity in Latino Families? Health Education Research, 21, 862-871.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/her/cyl110 [7] Baughcum, A. E., Powers, S. W., Johnson, S. B., Chamberlain, L. A., Deeks, C. M., Jain, A., & Whitaker, R. C. (2001). Maternal Feeding Practices and Beliefs and Their Relationships to Overweight in Early Childhood. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 391-408.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200112000-00007 [8] Benton, D. (2004). Role of Parents in the Determination of the Food Preferences of Children and the Development of Obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 28, 858-869.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802532 [9] Brown, K. A., Ogden, J., Vögele, C., & Gibson, E. L. (2008). The Role of Parental Control Practices in Explaining Children’s Diet and BMI. Appetite, 50, 252-259.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.010 [10] Burnier, D., Dubois, L., & Girard, M. (2011). Arguments at Mealtime and Child Energy Intake. Journal of Nutrition Education & Behavior, 43, 473-481.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2011.01.005 [11] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Sleep and Sleep Disorders.
http://www.cdc.gov/sleep/about_sleep/how_much_sleep.htm [12] Christian, M. S., Evans, C., Hancock, N., Nyjkaer, C., & Cade, J. (2013). Family Meals Can Help Children Reach Their 5 a Day: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Children’s Dietary Intake from London Primary Schools. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 67, 332-338.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-201604 [13] Dreyer, C. A., & Dreyer, A. S. (1973). Family Dinner Time as a Unique Behavior Habitat. Family Process, 12, 291-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1973.00291.x [14] Evers, C. (1997). Empower Children to Develop Healthful Eating Habits. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 97, S116.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(97)00742-6 [15] Feiring, C., & Lewis, M. (1987). The Ecology of Some Middle Class Families at Dinner. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 10, 377-390.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016502548701000307 [16] Fiese, B. H., Hammons, A., & Grigsby-Toussaint, D. (2012). Family Mealtimes: A Contextual Approach to Understanding Childhood Obesity. Economics and Human Biology Journal, 10, 365-374.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2012.04.004 [17] Fisher, J. O., & Birch, L. L. (2002). Eating in the Absence of Hunger and Overweight in Girls from 5 to 7 y of Age. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76, 226-231. [18] Fulkerson, J. A., Larson, N., Horning, M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2014). A Review of the Associations between Family or Shared Meal Frequency and Dietary and Weight Status Outcomes across the Lifespan. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 46, 2-19.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2013.07.012 [19] Hammons, A. J., & Fiese, B. H. (2011). Is Frequency of Shared Family Meals Related to the Nutritional Health of Children and Adolescents? Pediatrics, 127, 1565-1574.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1440 [20] Hill, C., Llewellyn, C. H., Saxton, J., Webber, L., Semmler, C., Carnell, S., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Boniface, D., & Wardle, J. (2008). Adiposity and ‘Eating in the Absence of Hunger’ in Children. International Journal of Obesity, 32, 1499-1505.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2008.113 [21] Hughes, S. O., Anderson, C. B., Power, T. G., Micheli, N., Jaramillo, S., & Nicklas, T. A. (2006). Measuring Feeding in Low-Income African-American and Hispanic Parents. Appetite, 4, 215-223.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bar.2006.9991 [22] Hughes, S. O., Shewchuck, R. M., Baslin, M. L., Nicklas, T. A., & Qu, H. (2008). Indulgent Feeding Style and Children’s Weight Status in Preschool. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 29, 403-410.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e318182a976 [23] Jansen, P. W., Roza, S. J., Jaddoe, V. W., Mackenbach, J. D., Raat, H., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., & Tiemeier, H. (2012). Children’s Eating Behavior, Feeding Practices of Parents and Weight Problems in Early Childhood: Results from the Population-Based Generation R Study. International Journal of Behavior Nutrition, and Physical Activity, 9, 130-141.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-130 [24] Koszewski, W., Behrends, D., Nichols, M., Sehi, N., & Jones, G. (2011). Patterns of Family Meals and Food and Nutrition Intake in Limited Resource Families. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 39, 431-441. [25] Liberatos, P., Link, B. G., & Kelsey, J. L. (1988). The Measurement of Social Class in Epidemiology. Epidemiologic Reviews, 10, 87-121. [26] Martin-Biggers, J., Spaccarotell, K., Berhaupt-Glickstein, A., Hongu, N., Worobey, J., & Byrd-Bredbenner, C. (2014). Come and Get It! A Discussion of Family Mealtime Literature and Factors Affecting Obesity Risk. Advances in Nutrition, 5, 235-247.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/an.113.005116 [27] McIntosh, W. A. (1999). The Family Meal and Its Significance in Global Times. In R. Grew (Ed.), Food in Global History (pp. 217-239). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. [28] Moray, J., Fu, A., Brill, K., & Mayoral, M. S. (2007). Viewing Television While Eating Impairs the Ability to Accurately Estimate Total Amount of Food Consumed. Bariatric Nursing and Surgical Patient Care, 2, 71-76.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/bar.2006.9991 [29] Murphy, J. M. (2007). Breakfast and Learning: An Updated Review. Journal of Current Nutrition and Food Science, 1, 3-36.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573401310703010003 [30] Neumark-Sztainer, D., Hannan, P., Story, M., Croll, J., & Perry, C. (2003). Family Meal Patterns: Associations with Sociodemographic Characteristics and Improved Intake among Adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 103, 317-322.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(02)00084-6 [31] New Jersey Head Start (2014).
http://www.benefits.gov/benefits/benefit-details/1926. [32] Patrick, H., Hennessy, E., McSpadden, K., & Oh, A. (2013). Parenting Styles and Practices in Children’s Obesogenic Behaviors: Scientific Gaps and Future Research Directions. Childhood Obesity, 9, S-73-S-86. [33] Patrick, H., Nicklas, T. A., Hughes, S. O., & Morales, M. (2005). The Benefits of Authoritative Feeding Style; Caregiver Feeding Styles and Children’s Food Consumption Patterns. Appetite, 44, 243-249.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2002.07.001 [34] Powers, S. W., Chamberlin, L. A., van Schaick, K. B., Sherman, S. N., & Whitaker, R. C. (2006). Maternal Feeding Strategies, Child Eating Behaviors, and Child BMI in Low-Income African-American Preschoolers. Obesity, 14, 2026-2033.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/oby.2006.237 [35] Skala, K., Chuang, R. J., Evans, A., Hedberg, A., Dave, J., & Sharma, S. (2012). Ethnic Differences in the Home Food Environment and Parental Food Practices among Families of Low-Income Hispanic and African-American Preschoolers. Journal of Immigrant Minority Health, 14, 1014-1022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10903-012-9575-9 [36] Spruijt-Metz, D., Lindquist, C. H., Birch, L. L., Fisher, J. O., & Goran, M. I. (2002). Relation between Mothers’ Child-Feeding Practices and Children’s Adiposity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75, 581-586. [37] Story, M., Kaphingst, K. M., Robinson-O’Brien, R., & Glanz, K. (2007) Creating Healthy Food and Eating Environments: Policy and Environmental Approaches. Annual Review of Public Health, 29, 253-272.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090926 [38] Taheri, S. (2006). The Link between Short Sleep Duration and Obesity: We Should Recommend More Sleep to Prevent Obesity. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 91, 881-884.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.093013 [39] Taveras, E. M., Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Berkey, C. S., Rockett, H. R. H., Field, A. E., Frazier, A. L., Colditz, G. A., & Gillman, M. W. (2005). Family Dinner and Adolescent Overweight. Obesity Research, 13, 900-906.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/oby.2005.104 [40] USDA (2011). About Us—MyPlate. United States Department of Agriculture.
http://www.choosemyplate.gov/about.html [41] Varela, R. E., Vernberg, E. M., Sanchez-Sosa, J. J., Riveros, A., Mitchell, M., & Mashunkashey, J. (2004). Parenting Style of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Caucasian-Non-Hispanic Families: Social Context and Cultural Influences. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 651-657.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.18.4.651 [42] Worobey, J., Borelli, A., Espinosa, C., & Worobey, H. S. (2013). Feeding Practices of Mothers from Varied Income and Racial/ Ethnic Groups. Early Child Development and Care, 183, 1661-1668.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.752735