Ways of Analysis of Fire Effluents and Assessment of Toxic Hazards
Author(s)
Abdulrhman M. Dhabbah
ABSTRACT
Fire effluents, in most cases, have an adverse effect on human health and the environment. Exposure to some compounds may show both acute and chronic toxicity. There is a lack of knowledge on the effect of organic products on the human body in terms of the rate of organic material production in fires and their degree of toxicity. Thus, there is a need to expand the scope of studies about the organic products generated from fires and improve the methods of assessment to be included as part of fire hazard assessment. Different factors can be contributed to this lack of knowledge. For example, the composition of organic products generated from fires changes progressively and rapidly with progression of combustion and in a manner that is dependent on the fire condition. It is difficult to identify individual organic compounds produced during combustion. Another key factor is the lack of suitable instruments for measuring organic products generated from a fire. Also, the lack of procedures that are used to evaluate the lethal concentration limits and the lethal dose for a broad range of organic compounds generated from a fire may be another important factor which can be contributed to this lack of knowledge.
Fire effluents, in most cases, have an adverse effect on human health and the environment. Exposure to some compounds may show both acute and chronic toxicity. There is a lack of knowledge on the effect of organic products on the human body in terms of the rate of organic material production in fires and their degree of toxicity. Thus, there is a need to expand the scope of studies about the organic products generated from fires and improve the methods of assessment to be included as part of fire hazard assessment. Different factors can be contributed to this lack of knowledge. For example, the composition of organic products generated from fires changes progressively and rapidly with progression of combustion and in a manner that is dependent on the fire condition. It is difficult to identify individual organic compounds produced during combustion. Another key factor is the lack of suitable instruments for measuring organic products generated from a fire. Also, the lack of procedures that are used to evaluate the lethal concentration limits and the lethal dose for a broad range of organic compounds generated from a fire may be another important factor which can be contributed to this lack of knowledge.
KEYWORDS
Fire Effluents, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Dioxins, Isocyanates
Fire Effluents, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Dioxins, Isocyanates
Cite this paper
Dhabbah, A. (2015) Ways of Analysis of Fire Effluents and Assessment of Toxic Hazards. Journal of Analytical Sciences, Methods and Instrumentation, 5, 1-12. doi: 10.4236/jasmi.2015.51001.
Dhabbah, A. (2015) Ways of Analysis of Fire Effluents and Assessment of Toxic Hazards. Journal of Analytical Sciences, Methods and Instrumentation, 5, 1-12. doi: 10.4236/jasmi.2015.51001.
References
[1] Hull, T.R. (2010) 12-Bench-Scale Generation of Fire Effluents. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 424-460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.4.424 [2] ISO (International Standards Orgnisation) (2008) ISO 13943. [3] Gann, R. (2008) Fire Effluent, People, and Standards: Standardization Philosophy for the Effects of Fire Effluent on Human Tenability. Interscience, London. [4] Alarie, Y. (2002) Toxicity of Fire Smoke. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 32, 259-289.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20024091064246 [5] Gann, R., Averill, J.D., Butler, K.M., Jones, W., Mulholland, G.W., Neviaser, J.L., et al. ( 2001) International Study of the Sublethal Effects of Fire Smoke on Survivability and Health (SEFS): Phase I Final Report. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Md.
http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.TN.1439 [6] Stec, A.A., Hull, T.R., Purser, J.A. and Purser, D.A. (2009) Comparison of Toxic Product Yields from Bench-Scale to ISO Room. Fire Safety Journal, 44, 62-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2008.03.005 [7] Purser, D.A. (2006) Assessment of Hazards to Occupants from Smoke, Toxic Gases, and Heat. In: Di Nenno, P.J., Ed., The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 4th Edition, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, 96- 193. [8] Hull, T.R. and Stec, A. (2010) Introduction to Fire Toxicity. In: Hull, T.R. and Stec, A., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 1-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.1.3 [9] Lestari, F. (2006) Development of in Vitro Toxicity Methods for Fire Combustion Products. Ph.D. Thesis, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, 7-71. [10] Lemieux, P.M., Lutes, C.C. and Santoianni, D.A. (2004) Emissions of Organic Air Toxics from Open Burning: A Comprehensive Review. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 30, 1-32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2003.08.001 [11] Purser, D. (2012) Validation of Additive Models for Lethal Toxicity of Fire Effluent Mixtures. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 97, 2552-2561. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.07.009 [12] Purser, D. (1992) The Evolution of Toxic Effluents in Fires and the Assessment of Toxic Hazard. Toxicology Letters, 64-65, 247-255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4274(92)90196-Q [13] Purser, D.A. (2010) 3—Hazaeds from Smoke and Irritants. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 51-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.2.51 [14] Hull, T., Stec, A. and Paul, K. (2008) Hydrogen Chloride in Fires. Fire Safety Science, 9, 665-676.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3801/IAFSS.FSS.9-665 [15] Fardell, P. and Guillaume, E. (2010) 11—Sampling and Measurement of Toxic Fire Effluent. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 385-423.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.4.385 [16] Hull, T.R., Lebek, K., Pezzani, M. and Messa, S. (2008) Comparison of Toxic Product Yields of Burning Cables in Bench and Large-Scale Experiments. Fire Safety Journal, 43, 140-150.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2007.06.004 [17] Purser, D., Stec, A. and Hull, R. (2010) 2—Fire Scenarios and Combustion Conditions. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 26-47.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.1.26 [18] Hull, T.R.A., Stec, A., Lebek, K. and Price, D. (2007) Factors Affecting the Combustion Toxicity of Polymeric Materials. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 92, 2239-2246.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.03.032 [19] ISO/TS 19706 (2004) Guidelines for Assessing the Fire Threat to People. [20] EH40/2005 Workplace Exposure Limits (2011) List of Approved Workplace Exposure Limits. Health and Safety Executive, 9-26. [21] D. for I.D.T.L. or H.C. (IDLHs) (1994) Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3/1/95). NIOSH Publications and Products. [22] National Research Council of the National Academies (2014) Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals. The National Academies Press, Washington DC, Vol. 17, 3-9. [23] Stec, A.A. and Hull, T.R. (2009) Chapter 17: Fire Toxicity and Its Assessment. [24] Blomqvist, P., McNamee, M.S., Andersson, P. and Lonnermark, A. (2012) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Quantified in Large-Scale Fire Experiments. Fire Technology, 48, 513-528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-011-0242-9 [25] Lodgejr, J. (1996) 5-Organic Pollutants, Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 3, 59-120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02986808 [26] Bello, D., Woskie, A.S.R., Streicher, R.P., Liu, Y., Stowe, M.H., Eisen, E.A., et al. (2004) Polyisocyanates in Occupational Environments: A Critical Review of Exposure Limits and Metrics. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 46, 480-491. [27] Blomqvist, P. (2005) Emissions from Fires, Consequences for Human Safety and the Environment. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Fire Safety Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund University, Lund. [28] Hoesbjoer, H.N., Norwegian, T. and Inspection, L. (2001) International Consensus Report on: Isocyanates—Risk Assessment and Management. Nordic Council of Ministers, 1-131. [29] Stanmore, B. (2004) The Formation of Dioxins in Combustion Systems. Combustion and Flame, 136, 398-427.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2003.11.004 [30] Van der Veen, I. and de Boer, J. (2012) Phosphorus Flame Retardants: Properties, Production, Environmental Occurrence, Toxicity and Analysis. Chemosphere, 88, 1119-1153.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.03.067 [31] Russo, M.V., Avino, P., Cinelli, G. and Notardonato, I. (2012) Sampling of Organophosphorus Pesticides at Trace Levels in the Atmosphere Using XAD-2 Adsorbent and Analysis by Gas Chromatography Coupled with Nitrogen-Phosphorus and Ion-Trap Mass Spectrometry Detectors. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 404, 1517-1527.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-012-6205-2 [32] ISO/DIS 29904 (2013) Fire Chemistry—Generation and Measurement of Aerosols, ISO the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. [33] Castranova, V. (2011) Factors Governing Pulmonary Response to Inhaled Particulate Matter. 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 793-803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118001684.ch38 [34] BS ISO 19701 (2005) Methods for Sampling and Analysis of Fire Effluents. British Standards Institution. [35] Blomqvist, P. Simonson-McNamee, M. (2010) 13—Large-Scale Generation and Characterisation of Fire Effluents. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 461-514.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.4.461 [36] EN1948-1 (1997) Stationary Source Emissions-Determination of the Mass Concentration of PCDDs/PCDFs-Part 1: Sampling.
[1] Hull, T.R. (2010) 12-Bench-Scale Generation of Fire Effluents. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 424-460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.4.424 [2] ISO (International Standards Orgnisation) (2008) ISO 13943. [3] Gann, R. (2008) Fire Effluent, People, and Standards: Standardization Philosophy for the Effects of Fire Effluent on Human Tenability. Interscience, London. [4] Alarie, Y. (2002) Toxicity of Fire Smoke. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 32, 259-289.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20024091064246 [5] Gann, R., Averill, J.D., Butler, K.M., Jones, W., Mulholland, G.W., Neviaser, J.L., et al. ( 2001) International Study of the Sublethal Effects of Fire Smoke on Survivability and Health (SEFS): Phase I Final Report. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Md.
http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.TN.1439 [6] Stec, A.A., Hull, T.R., Purser, J.A. and Purser, D.A. (2009) Comparison of Toxic Product Yields from Bench-Scale to ISO Room. Fire Safety Journal, 44, 62-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2008.03.005 [7] Purser, D.A. (2006) Assessment of Hazards to Occupants from Smoke, Toxic Gases, and Heat. In: Di Nenno, P.J., Ed., The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 4th Edition, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, 96- 193. [8] Hull, T.R. and Stec, A. (2010) Introduction to Fire Toxicity. In: Hull, T.R. and Stec, A., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 1-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.1.3 [9] Lestari, F. (2006) Development of in Vitro Toxicity Methods for Fire Combustion Products. Ph.D. Thesis, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, 7-71. [10] Lemieux, P.M., Lutes, C.C. and Santoianni, D.A. (2004) Emissions of Organic Air Toxics from Open Burning: A Comprehensive Review. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 30, 1-32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2003.08.001 [11] Purser, D. (2012) Validation of Additive Models for Lethal Toxicity of Fire Effluent Mixtures. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 97, 2552-2561. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.07.009 [12] Purser, D. (1992) The Evolution of Toxic Effluents in Fires and the Assessment of Toxic Hazard. Toxicology Letters, 64-65, 247-255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4274(92)90196-Q [13] Purser, D.A. (2010) 3—Hazaeds from Smoke and Irritants. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 51-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.2.51 [14] Hull, T., Stec, A. and Paul, K. (2008) Hydrogen Chloride in Fires. Fire Safety Science, 9, 665-676.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3801/IAFSS.FSS.9-665 [15] Fardell, P. and Guillaume, E. (2010) 11—Sampling and Measurement of Toxic Fire Effluent. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 385-423.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.4.385 [16] Hull, T.R., Lebek, K., Pezzani, M. and Messa, S. (2008) Comparison of Toxic Product Yields of Burning Cables in Bench and Large-Scale Experiments. Fire Safety Journal, 43, 140-150.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2007.06.004 [17] Purser, D., Stec, A. and Hull, R. (2010) 2—Fire Scenarios and Combustion Conditions. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 26-47.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.1.26 [18] Hull, T.R.A., Stec, A., Lebek, K. and Price, D. (2007) Factors Affecting the Combustion Toxicity of Polymeric Materials. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 92, 2239-2246.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.03.032 [19] ISO/TS 19706 (2004) Guidelines for Assessing the Fire Threat to People. [20] EH40/2005 Workplace Exposure Limits (2011) List of Approved Workplace Exposure Limits. Health and Safety Executive, 9-26. [21] D. for I.D.T.L. or H.C. (IDLHs) (1994) Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3/1/95). NIOSH Publications and Products. [22] National Research Council of the National Academies (2014) Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals. The National Academies Press, Washington DC, Vol. 17, 3-9. [23] Stec, A.A. and Hull, T.R. (2009) Chapter 17: Fire Toxicity and Its Assessment. [24] Blomqvist, P., McNamee, M.S., Andersson, P. and Lonnermark, A. (2012) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Quantified in Large-Scale Fire Experiments. Fire Technology, 48, 513-528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-011-0242-9 [25] Lodgejr, J. (1996) 5-Organic Pollutants, Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 3, 59-120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02986808 [26] Bello, D., Woskie, A.S.R., Streicher, R.P., Liu, Y., Stowe, M.H., Eisen, E.A., et al. (2004) Polyisocyanates in Occupational Environments: A Critical Review of Exposure Limits and Metrics. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 46, 480-491. [27] Blomqvist, P. (2005) Emissions from Fires, Consequences for Human Safety and the Environment. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Fire Safety Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund University, Lund. [28] Hoesbjoer, H.N., Norwegian, T. and Inspection, L. (2001) International Consensus Report on: Isocyanates—Risk Assessment and Management. Nordic Council of Ministers, 1-131. [29] Stanmore, B. (2004) The Formation of Dioxins in Combustion Systems. Combustion and Flame, 136, 398-427.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2003.11.004 [30] Van der Veen, I. and de Boer, J. (2012) Phosphorus Flame Retardants: Properties, Production, Environmental Occurrence, Toxicity and Analysis. Chemosphere, 88, 1119-1153.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.03.067 [31] Russo, M.V., Avino, P., Cinelli, G. and Notardonato, I. (2012) Sampling of Organophosphorus Pesticides at Trace Levels in the Atmosphere Using XAD-2 Adsorbent and Analysis by Gas Chromatography Coupled with Nitrogen-Phosphorus and Ion-Trap Mass Spectrometry Detectors. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 404, 1517-1527.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-012-6205-2 [32] ISO/DIS 29904 (2013) Fire Chemistry—Generation and Measurement of Aerosols, ISO the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. [33] Castranova, V. (2011) Factors Governing Pulmonary Response to Inhaled Particulate Matter. 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 793-803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118001684.ch38 [34] BS ISO 19701 (2005) Methods for Sampling and Analysis of Fire Effluents. British Standards Institution. [35] Blomqvist, P. Simonson-McNamee, M. (2010) 13—Large-Scale Generation and Characterisation of Fire Effluents. In: Stec, A. and Hull, T.R., Eds., Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 461-514.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/9781845698072.4.461 [36] EN1948-1 (1997) Stationary Source Emissions-Determination of the Mass Concentration of PCDDs/PCDFs-Part 1: Sampling.