A Perspective of the Diurnal Aspect of Thermal Comfort in Nigeria
Author(s)
Oyenike Mary Eludoyin
Affiliation(s)
Department of Geography and Planning Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria.
Department of Geography and Planning Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
This study examines the day-time variations in the physiologic comfort of Nigeria using the effective temperature, temperature-humidity and relative strain indices (ETI, THI and RSI, respectively) for 59 years (1951-2009) at 20 well-distributed (2 by 2°) meteorological stations across Nigeria. It also examines the responses from 3600 sample population from tertiary institutions across Nigeria. Results indicated thermal stress in Nigeria, and showed that both heat and cold stress varied temporally and spatially (1200 - 1500 Local Standard Time, LST as the most thermally uncomfortable period of the day, while before 0900 and around 2100 LST were more comfortable). The study showed that judgment on climate issues were often beclouded by religious or ignorant sentiments. Efficient coping strategies for thermal stress are generally lacking, being limited by poor education, financial capacity and inadequate government commitment to cater for the health effects of extreme climate conditions. The study concluded that Nigeria, which exemplifies many developing countries, is not yet prepared for the effect of future climate change. The study recommends climate education, improves health schemes for climate-related morbidity and improves greening of the urban environment.
This study examines the day-time variations in the physiologic comfort of Nigeria using the effective temperature, temperature-humidity and relative strain indices (ETI, THI and RSI, respectively) for 59 years (1951-2009) at 20 well-distributed (2 by 2°) meteorological stations across Nigeria. It also examines the responses from 3600 sample population from tertiary institutions across Nigeria. Results indicated thermal stress in Nigeria, and showed that both heat and cold stress varied temporally and spatially (1200 - 1500 Local Standard Time, LST as the most thermally uncomfortable period of the day, while before 0900 and around 2100 LST were more comfortable). The study showed that judgment on climate issues were often beclouded by religious or ignorant sentiments. Efficient coping strategies for thermal stress are generally lacking, being limited by poor education, financial capacity and inadequate government commitment to cater for the health effects of extreme climate conditions. The study concluded that Nigeria, which exemplifies many developing countries, is not yet prepared for the effect of future climate change. The study recommends climate education, improves health schemes for climate-related morbidity and improves greening of the urban environment.
Cite this paper
Eludoyin, O. (2014) A Perspective of the Diurnal Aspect of Thermal Comfort in Nigeria. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 4, 696-709. doi: 10.4236/acs.2014.44063.
Eludoyin, O. (2014) A Perspective of the Diurnal Aspect of Thermal Comfort in Nigeria. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 4, 696-709. doi: 10.4236/acs.2014.44063.
References
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006871805262 [3] Ajibola, K. (2001) Design for Comfort in Nigeria—A Bioclimatic Approach. Renewable Energy, 23, 57-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0960-1481(00)00113-0 [4] Ahmed, K.S. (2003) Comfort in Urban Spaces: Defining the Boundaries of Outdoor Thermal Comfort for the Tropical Urban Environments. Energy and Buildings, 35, 103-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00085-3 [5] Alessandro, A. and de Garín, A. (2003) A Study on Predictability of Human Physiological Strain in Buenos Aires City. Meteorological Applications, 10, 263-271.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1350482703003062 [6] Chappells, H. and Shove, E. (2004) Comfort: A Review of Philosophies and Paradigms. Unpublished Essay. http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/futcom/fc_litfinal1.pdf [7] Alcamo, J., Moreno, J.M., Nováky, B., Bindi, M., Corobov, R., Devoy, R.J.N., Giannakopoulos, C., Martin, E., Olesen, J.E. and Shvidenko, A. (2007) Europe. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. In: Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E., Eds., Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 541-580. [8] Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, B., Tabo, R. and Yanda, P. (2007) Africa: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II. In: Canziani, O.F., Parry, M.L., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E., Eds., Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 433-467. [9] Analitis, A., Katsouyanni, K., Biggeri, A., Baccini, M., Forsberg, B., Bisanti, L., Kirhmayer, U., Ballester, F., Cadum, E., Goodman, P.G., Hojs, A., Sunyer, J., Tiittanen, P. and Michelozzi, P. (2008) Effects of Cold Weather on Mortality: Results from 15 European Cities within the PHEWE Project. American Journal of Epidemiology, 168, 1397-1408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn266 [10] Lee, D.H.K. (1953) Physiological Climatology as a Field of Study. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 43, 127-137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00045605309352108 [11] Terjung, W. (1967) The Geographical Application of Some Selected Physio-Climatic Indices to Africa. International Journal of Biometeorology, 11, 5-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01424270 [12] Davis, R.E., Knappenberger, P.C., Michaels, P.J. and Novicoff, W.M. (2004) Seasonality of Climate-Human Mortality Relationships in US Cities and Impacts of Climate Change. Climate Research, 26, 61-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/cr026061 [13] Busch, J.F. (1992) A Tale of Two Populations: Thermal Comfort in Air-Conditioned and Naturally Ventilated Offices in Thailand. Energy and Buildings, 18, 235-249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(92)90016-A [14] Githeko, A. and Woodward, A. (2003) International Consensus on the Science of Climate and Health: The IPCC Third Assessment Report. Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses, World Health Organisation, Geneva, 43-60. [15] Emmanuel, R. (2005) Thermal Comfort Implications of Urbanization in a Warm-Humid City: The Colombo Metropolitan Region (CMR), Sri Lanka. Building and Environment, 40, 1591-1601.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.12.004 [16] Bypass, P. (2009) Climate Change and Population Health in Africa: Where Are the Scientists? Global Health Action, 2, 1-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/gha.v2i0.2065 [17] De Freitas, C. and Symon, L. (1987) A Bioclimatic Index of Human Survival Times in the Antarctic. Polar Record, 23, 651-659. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0032247400008354 [18] Ferreira, B., Zanobetti, A. and Schwartz, J. (2001) The Time Course of Weather-Related Deaths. Epidemiology, 12, 662-667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001648-200111000-00014 [19] De Dear, R.J. and Brager, G.S. (2002) Thermal Comfort in Naturally Ventilated Buildings: Revisions to ASHRAE Standard 55. Energy and Buildings, 34, 549-561.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00005-1 [20] De Freitas, C. (2003) Tourism Climatology: Evaluating Environmental Information for Decision Making and Business Planning in the Recreation and Tourism Sector. International Journal of Biometeorology, 48, 45-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-003-0177-z [21] Fritch, P., Alexander, L.V., Della-Marta, P., Gleason, B., Haylock, M., Klein Tank, A.M.G. and Peterson, T. (2002) Observed Coherent Changes in Climatic Extremes during the Second Half of the Twentieth Century. Climate Research, 19, 193-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/cr019193 [22] Piccarreta, M., Lazzari, M. and Pasini, A. (2014) Trends in Daily Temperature Extremes over the Basilicata Region (Southern Italy) from 1951 to 2010 in a Mediterranean Climatic Context. International Journal of Climatology, in Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.4101 [23] Kalkstein, L. and Valimont, K. (1986) An Evaluation of Summer Discomfort in the United States Using a Relative Climatological Index. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 67, 842-848. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1986)067<0842:AEOSDI>2.0.CO;2 [24] Kalkstein, L.S. (1991) A New Approach to Evaluate the Impact of Climate on Human Mortality. Environmental Health Perspectives, 96, 145-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9196145 [25] Kalkstein, L. and Smoyer, K. (1993) The Impact of Climate Change on Human Health: Some International Implications. Experientia, 49, 969-979. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02125644 [26] Kalkstein, L.S. and Greene, J.S. (1997) An Evaluation of Climate/Mortality Relationships in Large US Cities and the Possible Impacts of a Climate Change. Environmental Health Perspectives, 105, 84-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9710584 [27] Smoyer-Tomic, K.E. and Rainham, D. (2001) Beating the Heat: Development and Evaluation of a Canadian Hot Weather Health-Response Plan. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109, 1241-1248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.011091241 [28] Sheridan, S.C. and Kalkstein, L.S. (2004) Progress in Heat Watch-Warning System Technology. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 85, 1931-1941. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-85-12-1931 [29] Kalkstein, A.J. and Sheridan, S.C. (2007) The Social Impacts of the Heat-Health Watch/Warning System in Phoenix, Arizona: Assessing the Perceived Risk and Response of the Public. International Journal of Biometeorology, 52, 43-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-006-0073-4 [30] United Nations Population Fund, UNFPA (2007) The State of World Population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth. UNFPA, New York, 32 p. [31] United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP (2002) Global Environment. Nairobi. [32] World Health Organisation, WHO (2011) Regional Consultation on Health of the Urban. Proceedings of the 2010 Regional Consultation of Mubai, India, Regional Office for South East Asia, UNFPA, 82 p. [33] Ayoade, J. (1978) Spatial and Seasonal Patterns of Physiologic Comfort in Nigeria. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 26, 319-337. [34] Olaniran, O. (1982) The Physiological Climate of Ilorin, Nigeria. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 31, 287-299. [35] Kyle, W. (1994) The Human Bioclimate of Hong Kong. In: Brazdil, R. and Kolar, M., Eds., Contemporary Climatology, Proceedings of COC/IGU Meeting, 15-20 August 1994, Masaryk University, Brno, 345-350. [36] Iloeje, N.P. (2001) A New Geography of Nigeria. New Revised Edition, Longman Nig. Ltd., Lagos, 200 p. [37] Aregheore, E.M. (2009) Country Pasture/Forage Resources Profiles: Nigeria. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Italy, 42 p. [38] Eludoyin, O.M. and Adelekan, I.O. (2013) The Physiologic Climate of Nigeria. International Journal of Biometeorology, 57, 241-264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-012-0549-3 [39] Eludoyin, O.M., Adelekan, I.O., Webster, R. and Eludoyin, A.O. (2014) Air Temperature, Relative Humidity, Climate Regionalization and Thermal Comfort of Nigeria. International Journal of Climatology, 34, 2000-2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.3817 [40] United Nations Statistics Division, UNSD (2013) World Statistics Pocketbook, Country Profile. http://www.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Nigeria [41] Le Treut, H., Somerville, R., Cubasch, U., Ding, Y., Mauritzen, C., Mokssit, A., Peterson, T., Prather, M., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B. and Tignor, M. (2007) Historical Overview of Climate Change, Earth 1 (October), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 93-127. [42] Crocombe, R. and Meleisea, M. (1989) Higher Education in the Pacific Islands: Spheres of Influence, Trends and Developments. International Journal of Educational Development, 9, 163-173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0738-0593(89)90044-8 [43] Ogunsote, O.O. and Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002) Defining Climatic Zones for Architectural Design in Nigeria: A Systematic Delineation. Journal of Environmental Technology, 1, 1-14. [44] Ayoade, J. (1983) Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics. Wiley, Hoboken, 258 p. [45] Akinbode, O.M., Eludoyin, A.O. and Fashae, O.A. (2008) Temperature and Relative Humidity Distributions in a Medium-Size Administrative Town in Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Management, 87, 95-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.01.018 [46] Samendra, K. and Ayesha, K. (1994) The Variability and Probability Extremes of Some Climatic Elements over Dhaka. Reports, The Technical Conference on Tropical Urban Climates, Dhaka, 28 March-2April 1993, 95-115. [47] Runnals, K.E. and Oke, T.R. (2000) Dynamics and Control of the Near-Surface Heat Island of Vancouver, British Columbia. Physical Geography, 21, 283-304. [48] Sawa, B. and Buhari, B. (2011) Temperature Variability and Outbreak of Meningitis and Measles in Zaria, Northern Nigeria. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 3, 399-402. [49] Kalkstein, L.S., Jamason, P.F., Greene, J.S., Libby, J. and Robinson, L. (1996) The Philadelphia Hot Weather-Health Watch/Warning System: Development and Application, Summer 1995. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77, 1519-1528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<1519:TPHWHW>2.0.CO;2 [50] Smoyer, K. (1998) A Comparative Analysis of Heat Waves and Associated Mortality in St. Louis, Missouri—1980 and 1995. International Journal of Biometeorology, 42, 44-50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004840050082 [51] Omodanisi, E.S., Eludoyin, A.O. and Salami, A.T. (2014) A Multi-Perspective View of the Effects of a Pipeline Explosion in Nigeria. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 7, 68-77. [52] Allen, A.A. (2013) Population Dynamics and Infrastructure: Meeting the Millennium Development Goals in Ondo State, Nigeria. African Population Studies, 27, 229-237. http://dx.doi.org/10.11564/27-2-443
[1] Adebayo, Y. (1991) Day-Time Effects of Urbanization on Relative Humidity and Vapour Pressure in a Tropical City. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 43, 17-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00865039 [2] Becker, S. (1998) Beach Comfort Index—A New Approach to Evaluate the Thermal Conditions of Beach Holiday Resorts Using a South African Example. GeoJournal, 44, 297-307.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006871805262 [3] Ajibola, K. (2001) Design for Comfort in Nigeria—A Bioclimatic Approach. Renewable Energy, 23, 57-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0960-1481(00)00113-0 [4] Ahmed, K.S. (2003) Comfort in Urban Spaces: Defining the Boundaries of Outdoor Thermal Comfort for the Tropical Urban Environments. Energy and Buildings, 35, 103-110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00085-3 [5] Alessandro, A. and de Garín, A. (2003) A Study on Predictability of Human Physiological Strain in Buenos Aires City. Meteorological Applications, 10, 263-271.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1350482703003062 [6] Chappells, H. and Shove, E. (2004) Comfort: A Review of Philosophies and Paradigms. Unpublished Essay. http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/futcom/fc_litfinal1.pdf [7] Alcamo, J., Moreno, J.M., Nováky, B., Bindi, M., Corobov, R., Devoy, R.J.N., Giannakopoulos, C., Martin, E., Olesen, J.E. and Shvidenko, A. (2007) Europe. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. In: Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E., Eds., Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 541-580. [8] Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, B., Tabo, R. and Yanda, P. (2007) Africa: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II. In: Canziani, O.F., Parry, M.L., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E., Eds., Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 433-467. [9] Analitis, A., Katsouyanni, K., Biggeri, A., Baccini, M., Forsberg, B., Bisanti, L., Kirhmayer, U., Ballester, F., Cadum, E., Goodman, P.G., Hojs, A., Sunyer, J., Tiittanen, P. and Michelozzi, P. (2008) Effects of Cold Weather on Mortality: Results from 15 European Cities within the PHEWE Project. American Journal of Epidemiology, 168, 1397-1408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn266 [10] Lee, D.H.K. (1953) Physiological Climatology as a Field of Study. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 43, 127-137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00045605309352108 [11] Terjung, W. (1967) The Geographical Application of Some Selected Physio-Climatic Indices to Africa. International Journal of Biometeorology, 11, 5-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01424270 [12] Davis, R.E., Knappenberger, P.C., Michaels, P.J. and Novicoff, W.M. (2004) Seasonality of Climate-Human Mortality Relationships in US Cities and Impacts of Climate Change. Climate Research, 26, 61-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/cr026061 [13] Busch, J.F. (1992) A Tale of Two Populations: Thermal Comfort in Air-Conditioned and Naturally Ventilated Offices in Thailand. Energy and Buildings, 18, 235-249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(92)90016-A [14] Githeko, A. and Woodward, A. (2003) International Consensus on the Science of Climate and Health: The IPCC Third Assessment Report. Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses, World Health Organisation, Geneva, 43-60. [15] Emmanuel, R. (2005) Thermal Comfort Implications of Urbanization in a Warm-Humid City: The Colombo Metropolitan Region (CMR), Sri Lanka. Building and Environment, 40, 1591-1601.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.12.004 [16] Bypass, P. (2009) Climate Change and Population Health in Africa: Where Are the Scientists? Global Health Action, 2, 1-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/gha.v2i0.2065 [17] De Freitas, C. and Symon, L. (1987) A Bioclimatic Index of Human Survival Times in the Antarctic. Polar Record, 23, 651-659. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0032247400008354 [18] Ferreira, B., Zanobetti, A. and Schwartz, J. (2001) The Time Course of Weather-Related Deaths. Epidemiology, 12, 662-667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001648-200111000-00014 [19] De Dear, R.J. and Brager, G.S. (2002) Thermal Comfort in Naturally Ventilated Buildings: Revisions to ASHRAE Standard 55. Energy and Buildings, 34, 549-561.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00005-1 [20] De Freitas, C. (2003) Tourism Climatology: Evaluating Environmental Information for Decision Making and Business Planning in the Recreation and Tourism Sector. International Journal of Biometeorology, 48, 45-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-003-0177-z [21] Fritch, P., Alexander, L.V., Della-Marta, P., Gleason, B., Haylock, M., Klein Tank, A.M.G. and Peterson, T. (2002) Observed Coherent Changes in Climatic Extremes during the Second Half of the Twentieth Century. Climate Research, 19, 193-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/cr019193 [22] Piccarreta, M., Lazzari, M. and Pasini, A. (2014) Trends in Daily Temperature Extremes over the Basilicata Region (Southern Italy) from 1951 to 2010 in a Mediterranean Climatic Context. International Journal of Climatology, in Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.4101 [23] Kalkstein, L. and Valimont, K. (1986) An Evaluation of Summer Discomfort in the United States Using a Relative Climatological Index. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 67, 842-848. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1986)067<0842:AEOSDI>2.0.CO;2 [24] Kalkstein, L.S. (1991) A New Approach to Evaluate the Impact of Climate on Human Mortality. Environmental Health Perspectives, 96, 145-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9196145 [25] Kalkstein, L. and Smoyer, K. (1993) The Impact of Climate Change on Human Health: Some International Implications. Experientia, 49, 969-979. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02125644 [26] Kalkstein, L.S. and Greene, J.S. (1997) An Evaluation of Climate/Mortality Relationships in Large US Cities and the Possible Impacts of a Climate Change. Environmental Health Perspectives, 105, 84-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9710584 [27] Smoyer-Tomic, K.E. and Rainham, D. (2001) Beating the Heat: Development and Evaluation of a Canadian Hot Weather Health-Response Plan. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109, 1241-1248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.011091241 [28] Sheridan, S.C. and Kalkstein, L.S. (2004) Progress in Heat Watch-Warning System Technology. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 85, 1931-1941. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-85-12-1931 [29] Kalkstein, A.J. and Sheridan, S.C. (2007) The Social Impacts of the Heat-Health Watch/Warning System in Phoenix, Arizona: Assessing the Perceived Risk and Response of the Public. International Journal of Biometeorology, 52, 43-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-006-0073-4 [30] United Nations Population Fund, UNFPA (2007) The State of World Population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth. UNFPA, New York, 32 p. [31] United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP (2002) Global Environment. Nairobi. [32] World Health Organisation, WHO (2011) Regional Consultation on Health of the Urban. Proceedings of the 2010 Regional Consultation of Mubai, India, Regional Office for South East Asia, UNFPA, 82 p. [33] Ayoade, J. (1978) Spatial and Seasonal Patterns of Physiologic Comfort in Nigeria. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 26, 319-337. [34] Olaniran, O. (1982) The Physiological Climate of Ilorin, Nigeria. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 31, 287-299. [35] Kyle, W. (1994) The Human Bioclimate of Hong Kong. In: Brazdil, R. and Kolar, M., Eds., Contemporary Climatology, Proceedings of COC/IGU Meeting, 15-20 August 1994, Masaryk University, Brno, 345-350. [36] Iloeje, N.P. (2001) A New Geography of Nigeria. New Revised Edition, Longman Nig. Ltd., Lagos, 200 p. [37] Aregheore, E.M. (2009) Country Pasture/Forage Resources Profiles: Nigeria. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Italy, 42 p. [38] Eludoyin, O.M. and Adelekan, I.O. (2013) The Physiologic Climate of Nigeria. International Journal of Biometeorology, 57, 241-264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00484-012-0549-3 [39] Eludoyin, O.M., Adelekan, I.O., Webster, R. and Eludoyin, A.O. (2014) Air Temperature, Relative Humidity, Climate Regionalization and Thermal Comfort of Nigeria. International Journal of Climatology, 34, 2000-2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.3817 [40] United Nations Statistics Division, UNSD (2013) World Statistics Pocketbook, Country Profile. http://www.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Nigeria [41] Le Treut, H., Somerville, R., Cubasch, U., Ding, Y., Mauritzen, C., Mokssit, A., Peterson, T., Prather, M., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B. and Tignor, M. (2007) Historical Overview of Climate Change, Earth 1 (October), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 93-127. [42] Crocombe, R. and Meleisea, M. (1989) Higher Education in the Pacific Islands: Spheres of Influence, Trends and Developments. International Journal of Educational Development, 9, 163-173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0738-0593(89)90044-8 [43] Ogunsote, O.O. and Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002) Defining Climatic Zones for Architectural Design in Nigeria: A Systematic Delineation. Journal of Environmental Technology, 1, 1-14. [44] Ayoade, J. (1983) Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics. Wiley, Hoboken, 258 p. [45] Akinbode, O.M., Eludoyin, A.O. and Fashae, O.A. (2008) Temperature and Relative Humidity Distributions in a Medium-Size Administrative Town in Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Management, 87, 95-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.01.018 [46] Samendra, K. and Ayesha, K. (1994) The Variability and Probability Extremes of Some Climatic Elements over Dhaka. Reports, The Technical Conference on Tropical Urban Climates, Dhaka, 28 March-2April 1993, 95-115. [47] Runnals, K.E. and Oke, T.R. (2000) Dynamics and Control of the Near-Surface Heat Island of Vancouver, British Columbia. Physical Geography, 21, 283-304. [48] Sawa, B. and Buhari, B. (2011) Temperature Variability and Outbreak of Meningitis and Measles in Zaria, Northern Nigeria. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 3, 399-402. [49] Kalkstein, L.S., Jamason, P.F., Greene, J.S., Libby, J. and Robinson, L. (1996) The Philadelphia Hot Weather-Health Watch/Warning System: Development and Application, Summer 1995. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77, 1519-1528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<1519:TPHWHW>2.0.CO;2 [50] Smoyer, K. (1998) A Comparative Analysis of Heat Waves and Associated Mortality in St. Louis, Missouri—1980 and 1995. International Journal of Biometeorology, 42, 44-50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004840050082 [51] Omodanisi, E.S., Eludoyin, A.O. and Salami, A.T. (2014) A Multi-Perspective View of the Effects of a Pipeline Explosion in Nigeria. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 7, 68-77. [52] Allen, A.A. (2013) Population Dynamics and Infrastructure: Meeting the Millennium Development Goals in Ondo State, Nigeria. African Population Studies, 27, 229-237. http://dx.doi.org/10.11564/27-2-443