Assessment of the Relationship between ESR Signal Intensity and Grain Size Distribution in Shear Zones within the Atotsugawa Fault System, Central Japan
Affiliation(s)
1 Graduate School of Science and Engineering, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan. 2 Hot Spring Research Institutes of Kanagawa Prefecture, Kanagawa, Japan.
1 Graduate School of Science and Engineering, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan. 2 Hot Spring Research Institutes of Kanagawa Prefecture, Kanagawa, Japan.
ABSTRACT
For the first time, a relationship between ESR signal intensity and grain size distribution (sieve technique) in shear zones within the Atotsugawa fault system have been investigated using fault core rocks. The grain size distributions were estimated using the sieve technique and microscopic observations. Stacks of sieves with openings that decrease consecutively in the order of 4.75 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 μm, 300 μm, 150 μm and 75 μm were chosen for this study. Grain size distributions analysis revealed that samples further from the slip plane have larger d50 (average gain size) (0.45 mm at a distance of 30 - 50 mm from the slip plane) while those close to the slip plane have smaller d50 values (0.19 mm at a distance of 0 - 10 mm from the slip plane). This is due to intensive crushing that is always associated with large displacement during fault activities. However, this pattern was not respected in all shear zones in that, larger d50 values were instead observed in samples close to the slip plane due to admixture of fault rocks from different fault activities. Results from ESR analysis revealed that the relatively finer samples close to the slip plane have low ESR signals intensity while those further away (coarser) have relatively higher signal intensity. This tendency however, is not consistence in some of the shear zones due to a complex network of anatomizing faults. The variation in grain size distribution within some of the shear zones implies that, a series of fault events have taken place in the past thus underscoring the need for further investigation of the possibility of reoccurrence of faults.
For the first time, a relationship between ESR signal intensity and grain size distribution (sieve technique) in shear zones within the Atotsugawa fault system have been investigated using fault core rocks. The grain size distributions were estimated using the sieve technique and microscopic observations. Stacks of sieves with openings that decrease consecutively in the order of 4.75 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 μm, 300 μm, 150 μm and 75 μm were chosen for this study. Grain size distributions analysis revealed that samples further from the slip plane have larger d50 (average gain size) (0.45 mm at a distance of 30 - 50 mm from the slip plane) while those close to the slip plane have smaller d50 values (0.19 mm at a distance of 0 - 10 mm from the slip plane). This is due to intensive crushing that is always associated with large displacement during fault activities. However, this pattern was not respected in all shear zones in that, larger d50 values were instead observed in samples close to the slip plane due to admixture of fault rocks from different fault activities. Results from ESR analysis revealed that the relatively finer samples close to the slip plane have low ESR signals intensity while those further away (coarser) have relatively higher signal intensity. This tendency however, is not consistence in some of the shear zones due to a complex network of anatomizing faults. The variation in grain size distribution within some of the shear zones implies that, a series of fault events have taken place in the past thus underscoring the need for further investigation of the possibility of reoccurrence of faults.
KEYWORDS
Active Fault, Shear Zones, ESR Signal Intensity, Grain Size Distribution, Atotsugawa Fault System
Active Fault, Shear Zones, ESR Signal Intensity, Grain Size Distribution, Atotsugawa Fault System
Cite this paper
Fantong, E. , Takeuchi, A. , Kamishima, T. and Doke, R. (2014) Assessment of the Relationship between ESR Signal Intensity and Grain Size Distribution in Shear Zones within the Atotsugawa Fault System, Central Japan. International Journal of Geosciences, 5, 1282-1299. doi: 10.4236/ijg.2014.511106.
Fantong, E. , Takeuchi, A. , Kamishima, T. and Doke, R. (2014) Assessment of the Relationship between ESR Signal Intensity and Grain Size Distribution in Shear Zones within the Atotsugawa Fault System, Central Japan. International Journal of Geosciences, 5, 1282-1299. doi: 10.4236/ijg.2014.511106.
References
[1] Sibson, R.H. (2003) Thickness of the Seismic Slip Zone. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 93, 1169-1178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120020061 [2] Chester, F.M., Evans, J.P. and Biegl, R.L. (1993) Internal Structure and Weakening Mechanisms of the San-Andreas Fault. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth, 98, 771-786.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/92JB01866 [3] Kim, Y.S., Peacock, D.C.P. and Sanderson, D.J. (2004) Fault Damage Zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 26, 503-517.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2003.08.002 [4] Caine, J.S., Evans, J.P. and Forster, C.B. (1996) Fault Zone Architecture and Permeability Structure. Geology, 24, 1025-1028.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<1025:FZAAPS>2.3.CO;2 [5] Bruhn, R.L., Parry, W.T., Yonkee, W.A. and Thompson, T. (1994) Fracturing and Hydrothermal Alteration in Normal Fault Zones. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 142, 609-644.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00876057 [6] Passchie, R.C.W. and Trouw, R.A.J. (1996) Microtectonics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. [7] Fondriest, M., Smith, S.A.F., Toro, G.D., Zampieri, D. and Mittempergher, S. (2012) Fault Zone Structure and Seismic Slip Localization in Dolostone, an Example from the South Alps, Italy. Journal of structural Geology, 45, 52-67.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2012.06.014 [8] Scholz, C.H. (2002) The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818516 [9] Billi, A. (2005) Grain Size Distribution and Thickness of Breccia and Gouge Zones from Thin (<1 m) Strike-Slip Fault Cores in Limestone. Journal of Structural Geology, 27, 1823-1837. [10] Engelder, T. (1974) Cataclasis and the Generation of Fault Gouge. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 85, 1515-1522.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<1515:CATGOF>2.0.CO;2 [11] Laws, S., Eberhardt, E., Loew, S. and Descoeudres, F. (2003) Geomechanical Properties of Shear Zones in the Eastern Aar Massif, Switzerland and Their Implication on Tunnelling. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 36, 271-303.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00603-003-0050-8 [12] Sibson, R. (1977) Fault Rocks and Fault Mechanisms. Journal of the Geological Society, 133, 191-213.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.133.3.0191 [13] Matin, A., Banerjee, S., Gupta, C.D. and Banerjee, N. (2012) Progressive Deformation across a Ductile Shear Zone: An Example from the Singhbhum Shear Zone, Eastern India. International Geology Review, 54, 290-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2010.543781 [14] Sammis, C., King, G. and Biegel, R. (1987) The Kinematics of Gouge Deformation. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 125, 777-812.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00878033 [15] Tanaka, H., Fujimoto, K., Ohtani, T. and Ito, H. (2001) Structural and Chemical Characterization of Shear Zones in the Freshly Activated Nojima Fault, Awaji Island, Southwest Japan. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106, 8789-8810.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900444 [16] Wilson, J., Chester, J. and Chester, F. (2003) Microfracture Analysis of Fault Growth and Wear Processes, Punchbowl Fault, San Andreas System, California. Journal of Structural Geology, 25, 1855-1873.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8141(03)00036-1 [17] Buhay, W.M., Schwarcz, H.P. and Grun, R. (1988) ESR Dating of Fault Gouge: The Effect of Grain Size. Quaternary Science Reviews, 7, 515-522.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(88)90055-8 [18] Fukuchi, T. (1989) Theoretical Study on Frictional Heat by Faulting Using Electron Spin Resonance. International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Part A. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 40, 1181-1193.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0883-2889(89)90061-0 [19] Gundu Rao, T.K., Rajendran, C.P., Mathew, G. and John, B. (2002) Electron Spin Resonance Dating of Fault Gouge from Desamangalam, Kerala: Evidence for Quaternary Movement in Palghat Gap Shear Zone. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences-Earth and Planetary Sciences, 111, 103-113. [20] Ikeya, M., Miki, T. and Tanaka, K. (1982) Dating of a Fault by ESR on Intrafault Materials. Science, 215, 1391-1393.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.215.4538.1392 [21] Lee, H.K. and Schwarcz, E.P. (1993) An Experimental Study of Shear-Induced Zeroing of ESR Signals in Quartz. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 44, 191-195.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0969-8043(93)90218-Y [22] Miki, T. and Ikeya, M. (1982) Physical Basis of a Fault Dating with ESR. Naturwissenschaften, 69, 390-391.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00396692 [23] Amitrano, D. and Schmittbuhl, J. (2002) Fracture Roughness and Gouge Distribution of a Granite Shear Band. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107, ESE 19-1-ESE 19-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JB001761 [24] Aydin, A. (1978) Small Faults Formed as Deformation Bands in Sandstone. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 116, 913-930.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00876546 [25] LeB. Hooke, R. and Iverson, N.R. (1995) Grain-Size Distribution in Deforming Subglacial Tills: Role of Grain Fracture. Geology, 23, 57-60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0057:GSDIDS>2.3.CO;2 [26] Mandl, G., De Jong, L.N.J. and Maltha, A. (1977) Shear Zones in Granular Material—An Experimental Study of Their Structure and Mechanical Genesis. Rock Mechanics, 9, 95-144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01237876 [27] Fukuchi, T., Mie, H., Okubo, S. and Imai, N. (2002) Assessment of Fault Activity by ESR Dating of Fault Gouge Using Surface E’ Center in Quartz Produced with Clay Mineralization: The Case of the Atotsugawa Fault in Japan. Advances in ESR Applications, 18, 145-151. [28] Fantong, E.B., Takeuchi, A. and Doke, R. (2013) Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating of Calcareous Fault Gouge of the Ushikubi Fault, Central Japan. Applied Magnetic Resonance, 44, 1105-1123.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00723-013-0471-9 [29] Oohashi, K. and Kobayashi, K. (2008) Fault Geometry and Paleo-Movement of the Central Part of the Ushikubi Fault, Northern Central Japan. Journal of the Geological Society of Japan, 114, 16-30. (In Japanese with English Abstract)
http://dx.doi.org/10.5575/geosoc.114.16 [30] Takeuchi, A., Takebe, A., Ongirad, H. and Doke, R. (2007) Seismology of the Atotsugawa Strike-Slip Fault in the Hida Mountains, Central Japan with the Special Reference to the Investigation Gallery across the Branch Mozumi-Sukenobe Fault. In: Geodynamics of Atotsugawa Fault System, Terrapub, Tokyo, 1-10. [31] Research Group of Active Fault of Japan (1991) Active Faults in Japan; Sheet Maps and Inventories (Revised Edition). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 437. (In Japanese with English Abstracts) [32] Ikeya, M. (1993) New Applications of Electron Spin Resonance. Dating, Dosimetry and Microscopy. World Scientific, Singapore. [33] Blott, S.J. and Pye, K. (2001) Gradistat: A Grain Size Distribution and Statistics Package for the Analysis of Unconsolidated Sediments. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 26, 1237-1248.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.261 [34] Cladouhos, T.T. (1999) Shape Preferred Orientations of Survivor Grains in Fault Gouge. Journal of Structural Geology, 21, 419-436.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8141(98)00123-0 [35] Storti, F., Billi, A. and Salvini, F. (2003) Particle Size Distributions in Natural Carbonate Fault Rocks: Insights for Non-Self-Similar Cataclasis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 206, 173-186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01077-4 [36] Fukuchi, T. (2001) Assessment of Fault Activity by ESR Dating of Fault Gouge; an Example of the 500 m Core Samples Drilled into the Nojima Earthquake Fault in Japan. Quaternary Science Reviews, 20, 1005-1008.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00064-0 [37] Fukuchi, T. and Imai, N. (1998) Resetting Experiment of E’ Centres by Natural Faulting—The Case of the Nojima Earthquake Fault in Japan. Quaternary Geochronology, 17, 1063-1068. [38] Fukuchi, T. and Imai, N. (2001) ESR and ICP Analyses of the DPRI 500 m Drill Core Samples Penetrating through the Nojima Fault, Japan. Island Arc, 10, 465-478. [39] Ariyama, T. (1985) Conditions of Resetting the ESR Clock during Faulting. In: Ikeya, M. and Miki, T., Eds., ESR Dating and Dosimetry, IONICS, Tokyo, 249-256. [40] Tanaka, K. and Shidahara, T. (1985) Fracturing, Crushing and Grinding Effects of ESR Signal of Quartz. In: Ikeya, M. and Miki, T., Eds., ESR Dating and Dosimetry, IONICS, Tokyo, 239-247. [41] Tanaka, K. (1985) Experimental Study on Annealing of ESR Signal of Quartz during Faulting. In: Ariyama, T., Ed., Conditions of Resetting the ESR Clock during Faulting, IONICS, Tokyo, 249-256. [42] Fukuchi, T. (1991) The Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line at the Western Edge of the South Fossa Magna. Japan. Mod. Geology, 15, 347-366 [43] Fukuchi, T. and Imai, N. (1998) ESR Isochron Dating of the Nojima Fault Gouge, Southwest Japan, Using ICP-MS: An Approach to Fluid Flow Events in the Fault Zone. Geological Society, London Special Publications, 144, 261-277.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.144.01.19 [44] Toyoda, S., Rink, W.J., Schwarz, H.P. and Rees-Jones, J. (2000) Crushing Effects on TL and OSL on Quartz: Relevance to Fault Dating. Radiation Measurements, 32, 667-672.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1350-4487(00)00088-3 [45] Hattori, I. and Yamamoto, H. (1999) Rock Fragmentation and Particle Size in Crushed Zones by Faulting. Journal of Geology, 107, 209-222.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/314343 [46] Matsumoto, H., Yamanaka, C. and Ikeya, M. (2001) ESR Analysis of the Nojima Fault Gouge, Japan, from the DPRI 500 m Borehole. The Island Arc, 10, 479-485.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1738.2001.00346.x [47] Keulen, N., Heilbronner, R., Stünitz, H., Boullier, A. and Ito, H. (2007) Grain Size Distributions of Fault Rocks: A Comparison between Experimentally and Naturally Deformed Granitoids. Journal of Structural Geology, 29, 1282-1300.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2007.04.003 [48] Hiraga, S., Morimoto, A. and Shimamoto, T. (2002) Stress Effect on Thermoluminescence Intensities of Quartz Grains—For the Establishment of a Fault Dating Method. Bulletin of Nara University of Education, 51, 17-24. [49] Toyoda, S. and Schwarcz, H.P. (1996) The Spatial Distribution of ESR Signals in Fault Gouge Revealed by Abrading Technique. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 47, 1409-1413.
[1] Sibson, R.H. (2003) Thickness of the Seismic Slip Zone. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 93, 1169-1178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120020061 [2] Chester, F.M., Evans, J.P. and Biegl, R.L. (1993) Internal Structure and Weakening Mechanisms of the San-Andreas Fault. Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth, 98, 771-786.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/92JB01866 [3] Kim, Y.S., Peacock, D.C.P. and Sanderson, D.J. (2004) Fault Damage Zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 26, 503-517.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2003.08.002 [4] Caine, J.S., Evans, J.P. and Forster, C.B. (1996) Fault Zone Architecture and Permeability Structure. Geology, 24, 1025-1028.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<1025:FZAAPS>2.3.CO;2 [5] Bruhn, R.L., Parry, W.T., Yonkee, W.A. and Thompson, T. (1994) Fracturing and Hydrothermal Alteration in Normal Fault Zones. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 142, 609-644.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00876057 [6] Passchie, R.C.W. and Trouw, R.A.J. (1996) Microtectonics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. [7] Fondriest, M., Smith, S.A.F., Toro, G.D., Zampieri, D. and Mittempergher, S. (2012) Fault Zone Structure and Seismic Slip Localization in Dolostone, an Example from the South Alps, Italy. Journal of structural Geology, 45, 52-67.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2012.06.014 [8] Scholz, C.H. (2002) The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818516 [9] Billi, A. (2005) Grain Size Distribution and Thickness of Breccia and Gouge Zones from Thin (<1 m) Strike-Slip Fault Cores in Limestone. Journal of Structural Geology, 27, 1823-1837. [10] Engelder, T. (1974) Cataclasis and the Generation of Fault Gouge. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 85, 1515-1522.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1974)85<1515:CATGOF>2.0.CO;2 [11] Laws, S., Eberhardt, E., Loew, S. and Descoeudres, F. (2003) Geomechanical Properties of Shear Zones in the Eastern Aar Massif, Switzerland and Their Implication on Tunnelling. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 36, 271-303.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00603-003-0050-8 [12] Sibson, R. (1977) Fault Rocks and Fault Mechanisms. Journal of the Geological Society, 133, 191-213.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.133.3.0191 [13] Matin, A., Banerjee, S., Gupta, C.D. and Banerjee, N. (2012) Progressive Deformation across a Ductile Shear Zone: An Example from the Singhbhum Shear Zone, Eastern India. International Geology Review, 54, 290-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2010.543781 [14] Sammis, C., King, G. and Biegel, R. (1987) The Kinematics of Gouge Deformation. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 125, 777-812.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00878033 [15] Tanaka, H., Fujimoto, K., Ohtani, T. and Ito, H. (2001) Structural and Chemical Characterization of Shear Zones in the Freshly Activated Nojima Fault, Awaji Island, Southwest Japan. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106, 8789-8810.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900444 [16] Wilson, J., Chester, J. and Chester, F. (2003) Microfracture Analysis of Fault Growth and Wear Processes, Punchbowl Fault, San Andreas System, California. Journal of Structural Geology, 25, 1855-1873.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8141(03)00036-1 [17] Buhay, W.M., Schwarcz, H.P. and Grun, R. (1988) ESR Dating of Fault Gouge: The Effect of Grain Size. Quaternary Science Reviews, 7, 515-522.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(88)90055-8 [18] Fukuchi, T. (1989) Theoretical Study on Frictional Heat by Faulting Using Electron Spin Resonance. International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Part A. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 40, 1181-1193.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0883-2889(89)90061-0 [19] Gundu Rao, T.K., Rajendran, C.P., Mathew, G. and John, B. (2002) Electron Spin Resonance Dating of Fault Gouge from Desamangalam, Kerala: Evidence for Quaternary Movement in Palghat Gap Shear Zone. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences-Earth and Planetary Sciences, 111, 103-113. [20] Ikeya, M., Miki, T. and Tanaka, K. (1982) Dating of a Fault by ESR on Intrafault Materials. Science, 215, 1391-1393.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.215.4538.1392 [21] Lee, H.K. and Schwarcz, E.P. (1993) An Experimental Study of Shear-Induced Zeroing of ESR Signals in Quartz. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 44, 191-195.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0969-8043(93)90218-Y [22] Miki, T. and Ikeya, M. (1982) Physical Basis of a Fault Dating with ESR. Naturwissenschaften, 69, 390-391.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00396692 [23] Amitrano, D. and Schmittbuhl, J. (2002) Fracture Roughness and Gouge Distribution of a Granite Shear Band. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107, ESE 19-1-ESE 19-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JB001761 [24] Aydin, A. (1978) Small Faults Formed as Deformation Bands in Sandstone. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 116, 913-930.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00876546 [25] LeB. Hooke, R. and Iverson, N.R. (1995) Grain-Size Distribution in Deforming Subglacial Tills: Role of Grain Fracture. Geology, 23, 57-60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0057:GSDIDS>2.3.CO;2 [26] Mandl, G., De Jong, L.N.J. and Maltha, A. (1977) Shear Zones in Granular Material—An Experimental Study of Their Structure and Mechanical Genesis. Rock Mechanics, 9, 95-144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01237876 [27] Fukuchi, T., Mie, H., Okubo, S. and Imai, N. (2002) Assessment of Fault Activity by ESR Dating of Fault Gouge Using Surface E’ Center in Quartz Produced with Clay Mineralization: The Case of the Atotsugawa Fault in Japan. Advances in ESR Applications, 18, 145-151. [28] Fantong, E.B., Takeuchi, A. and Doke, R. (2013) Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating of Calcareous Fault Gouge of the Ushikubi Fault, Central Japan. Applied Magnetic Resonance, 44, 1105-1123.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00723-013-0471-9 [29] Oohashi, K. and Kobayashi, K. (2008) Fault Geometry and Paleo-Movement of the Central Part of the Ushikubi Fault, Northern Central Japan. Journal of the Geological Society of Japan, 114, 16-30. (In Japanese with English Abstract)
http://dx.doi.org/10.5575/geosoc.114.16 [30] Takeuchi, A., Takebe, A., Ongirad, H. and Doke, R. (2007) Seismology of the Atotsugawa Strike-Slip Fault in the Hida Mountains, Central Japan with the Special Reference to the Investigation Gallery across the Branch Mozumi-Sukenobe Fault. In: Geodynamics of Atotsugawa Fault System, Terrapub, Tokyo, 1-10. [31] Research Group of Active Fault of Japan (1991) Active Faults in Japan; Sheet Maps and Inventories (Revised Edition). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 437. (In Japanese with English Abstracts) [32] Ikeya, M. (1993) New Applications of Electron Spin Resonance. Dating, Dosimetry and Microscopy. World Scientific, Singapore. [33] Blott, S.J. and Pye, K. (2001) Gradistat: A Grain Size Distribution and Statistics Package for the Analysis of Unconsolidated Sediments. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 26, 1237-1248.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.261 [34] Cladouhos, T.T. (1999) Shape Preferred Orientations of Survivor Grains in Fault Gouge. Journal of Structural Geology, 21, 419-436.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8141(98)00123-0 [35] Storti, F., Billi, A. and Salvini, F. (2003) Particle Size Distributions in Natural Carbonate Fault Rocks: Insights for Non-Self-Similar Cataclasis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 206, 173-186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01077-4 [36] Fukuchi, T. (2001) Assessment of Fault Activity by ESR Dating of Fault Gouge; an Example of the 500 m Core Samples Drilled into the Nojima Earthquake Fault in Japan. Quaternary Science Reviews, 20, 1005-1008.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(00)00064-0 [37] Fukuchi, T. and Imai, N. (1998) Resetting Experiment of E’ Centres by Natural Faulting—The Case of the Nojima Earthquake Fault in Japan. Quaternary Geochronology, 17, 1063-1068. [38] Fukuchi, T. and Imai, N. (2001) ESR and ICP Analyses of the DPRI 500 m Drill Core Samples Penetrating through the Nojima Fault, Japan. Island Arc, 10, 465-478. [39] Ariyama, T. (1985) Conditions of Resetting the ESR Clock during Faulting. In: Ikeya, M. and Miki, T., Eds., ESR Dating and Dosimetry, IONICS, Tokyo, 249-256. [40] Tanaka, K. and Shidahara, T. (1985) Fracturing, Crushing and Grinding Effects of ESR Signal of Quartz. In: Ikeya, M. and Miki, T., Eds., ESR Dating and Dosimetry, IONICS, Tokyo, 239-247. [41] Tanaka, K. (1985) Experimental Study on Annealing of ESR Signal of Quartz during Faulting. In: Ariyama, T., Ed., Conditions of Resetting the ESR Clock during Faulting, IONICS, Tokyo, 249-256. [42] Fukuchi, T. (1991) The Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line at the Western Edge of the South Fossa Magna. Japan. Mod. Geology, 15, 347-366 [43] Fukuchi, T. and Imai, N. (1998) ESR Isochron Dating of the Nojima Fault Gouge, Southwest Japan, Using ICP-MS: An Approach to Fluid Flow Events in the Fault Zone. Geological Society, London Special Publications, 144, 261-277.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.144.01.19 [44] Toyoda, S., Rink, W.J., Schwarz, H.P. and Rees-Jones, J. (2000) Crushing Effects on TL and OSL on Quartz: Relevance to Fault Dating. Radiation Measurements, 32, 667-672.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1350-4487(00)00088-3 [45] Hattori, I. and Yamamoto, H. (1999) Rock Fragmentation and Particle Size in Crushed Zones by Faulting. Journal of Geology, 107, 209-222.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/314343 [46] Matsumoto, H., Yamanaka, C. and Ikeya, M. (2001) ESR Analysis of the Nojima Fault Gouge, Japan, from the DPRI 500 m Borehole. The Island Arc, 10, 479-485.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1738.2001.00346.x [47] Keulen, N., Heilbronner, R., Stünitz, H., Boullier, A. and Ito, H. (2007) Grain Size Distributions of Fault Rocks: A Comparison between Experimentally and Naturally Deformed Granitoids. Journal of Structural Geology, 29, 1282-1300.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2007.04.003 [48] Hiraga, S., Morimoto, A. and Shimamoto, T. (2002) Stress Effect on Thermoluminescence Intensities of Quartz Grains—For the Establishment of a Fault Dating Method. Bulletin of Nara University of Education, 51, 17-24. [49] Toyoda, S. and Schwarcz, H.P. (1996) The Spatial Distribution of ESR Signals in Fault Gouge Revealed by Abrading Technique. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 47, 1409-1413.