The Smell of Success?—The Impact of Perfume-Gender Congruency on Ratings of Attraction and the Halo Effect
Affiliation(s)
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
ABSTRACT
Research into the concept of attraction has indicated the existence of olfactory influences that go beyond pheromonal level. Synthetic fragrances have been found to affect not only perception of attraction, but also attribution of beauty-unrelated intrinsic characteristics. The present study aimed to examine the impact of perfume-gender congruency on ratings of attractiveness and any perfume-generated halo effect. Male faces categorized as low, medium and high attractiveness were rated by 36 heterosexual female students across six domains: attractive, reliable, outgoing, intelligent, wealthy and socially competent. Ratings were made in the presence of a female perfume (incongruent condition), male perfume (congruent condition) or a no perfume control condition, with participants randomly allocated to produce three groups of equal size. The results indicated that 1) attractiveness generated a significant halo effect; 2) the male perfume did not significantly enhance perception of attractiveness compared to the female perfume; and 3) the gender-congruent fragrance heightened attribution of “halo” characteristics. These results indicate that gender congruent perfume can impact positively on first impressions beyond attractiveness, and are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms and implications.
Cite this paper
Marinova, R. and Moss, M. (2014) The Smell of Success?—The Impact of Perfume-Gender Congruency on Ratings of Attraction and the Halo Effect. Advances in Chemical Engineering and Science, 4, 491-502. doi: 10.4236/aces.2014.44051.
Marinova, R. and Moss, M. (2014) The Smell of Success?—The Impact of Perfume-Gender Congruency on Ratings of Attraction and the Halo Effect. Advances in Chemical Engineering and Science, 4, 491-502. doi: 10.4236/aces.2014.44051.
References
[1] VandenBos, G. (2007) APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington. [2] Bull, R. and Rumsey, N. (1988) The Social Psychology of Facial Appearance. Springer-Verlag, London. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3782-2 [3] Langlois, J., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A., Larson, A., Hallam, M. and Smoot, M. (2000) Maxims or Myths of Beauty? A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 390-423.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390 [4] Hamermesh, D.S. (2011) Beauty Pays: Why Attractive People Are More Successful. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. [5] Thorndike, E. (1920) A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 4, 25-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0071663 [6] Zebrowitz, L., Hall, J., Murphy, N. and Rhodes, G. (2002) Looking Smart and Looking Good: Facial Cues to Intelligence and Their Origins. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 238-249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167202282009 [7] Dion, K., Berscheid, E. and Walster, E. (1972) What Is Beautiful Is Good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285-290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0033731 [8] Wilson, R.K. and Eckel, C C. (2006) Judging a Book by Its Cover: Beauty and Expectations in the Trust Game. Political Research Quarterly, 59, 189-202.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/106591290605900202 [9] Feingold, A. (1992) Good-Looking People Are Not What We Think. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 304-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.2.304 [10] Ritts, V., Patterson, M.L. and Tubbs, M.E. (1992) Expectations, Impressions, and Judgments of Physically Attractive Students: A Review. Review of Educational Research, 62, 413-426.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543062004413 [11] Jackson, L.A., Hunter, J.E. and Hodge, C.N. (1995) Physical Attractiveness and Intellectual Competence: A Meta-Analytic Review. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58, 108-122.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2787149 [12] Mulford, M., Orbell, J., Shatto, C. and Stockard, J. (1998) Physical Attractiveness, Opportunity, and Success in Everyday Exchange. The American Journal of Sociology, 103, 1565-1592.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/231401 [13] Watkins, L.M. and Johnston, L. (2002) Screening Job Applicants: The Impact of Physical Attractiveness and Application Quality. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 8, 76-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2389.00135 [14] Hosoda, M., Stone-Romero, E. and Coats, G. (2003) The Effects of Physical Attractiveness on Job-Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Studies. Personnel Psychology, 56, 431-462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00157.x [15] Fletcher, J. (2009) Beauty vs Brains: Early Labor Market Outcomes of High School Graduates. Economics Letters, 105, 321-325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2009.09.006 [16] Grosser, B.I., Monti-Bloch, L., Jennings-White, C. and Berliner, D.L. (2000) Behavioral and Electrophysiological Effects of Androstadienone, a Human Pheromone. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 289-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(99)00056-6 [17] Kirk-Smith, M. and Booth, D. (1980) Effects of Androstenone on Choice of Location in Other’s Presence. In: Van der Starre, H., Ed., Olfaction and Taste VII, IRL Press, London, 397-400. [18] Gustavson, A.R., Dawson, M.E. and Bonett, D.G. (1987) Androstenol, a Putative Human Pheromone, Affects Human (Homo sapiens) Male Choice Performance. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 101, 210-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.101.2.210 [19] Berliner, D.L. (1994) Fragrance Compositions Containing Human Pheromones. United States Patent Office No. 5278141. [20] Soars, B. (2009) Driving Sales through Shoppers’ Sense of Sound, Sight, Smell and Touch. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37, 286-298.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09590550910941535 [21] Spangenberg, E.R., Sprott, D.E., Grohmann, B. and Tracy, D.L. (2006) Gender-Congruent Ambient Scent Influences on Approach and Avoidance Behaviors in a Retail Store. Journal of Business Research, 59, 1281-1287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.08.006 [22] Waskul, D.D. and Vannini, P. (2008) Smell, Odor, and Somatic Work: Sense-Making and Sensory Management. Social Psychology Quarterly, 71, 53-71.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019027250807100107 [23] Hyde, J. and DeLamater, J.D. (2011) Understanding Human Sexuality. 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York. [24] Berliner, D., Jennings-White, C. and Lavker, R. (1991) The Human Skin: Fragrances and Pheromones. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 39, 671-679.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0960-0760(91)90266-8 [25] Baron, R. (1981) Olfaction and Human Social Behaviour: Effects of a Pleasant Scent on Attraction and Social Perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 611-616.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014616728174016 [26] Kirk-Smith, M.D. and Booth, D.A. (1990) The Effect of Five Odorants on Mood and the Judgments of Others. Chemical Signals in Vertebrates, 5, 48-54. [27] Capparuccini, O., Berrie, C. and Mazzatenta, A. (2010) The Potential Hedonic Role of Olfaction in Sexual Selection and Its Dominance in Visual Cross-Modal Interactions. Perception, 39, 1322-1329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p6736 [28] Jacob, T.J., Fraser, C., Wang, L., Walker, V. and O’Connor, S. (2003) Psychophysical Evaluation of Responses to Pleasant and Mal-Odour Stimulation in Human Subjects; Adaptation, Dose Response and Gender Differences. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 48, 67-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8760(03)00020-5 [29] Gostelow, P., Parsons, S.A. and Stuetz, R.M. (2001) Odour Measurements for Sewage Treatment Works. Water Research, 35, 579-597. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00313-4 [30] Dematte, M., Osterbauer, R. and Spence, C. (2007) Olfactory Cues Modulate Facial Attractiveness. Chemical Senses, 32, 603-610. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjm030 [31] Cardello, A. (1994) Consumer Expectations and Their Role in Food Acceptance. In: MacFie, H. and Thomson, D., Eds., Measurement of Food Preference, Elsevier, London, 253-297.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2171-6_10 [32] Dalton, P. (2002) Olfaction. In: Yantis, S. and Pashler, H., Eds., Steven’s Handbook of Experimental Psychology: Vol. 1. Sensation and Perception, 3rd Edition, John Wiley, New York, 691-746. [33] Demattè, M., Sanabria, D. and Spence, C. (2006) Cross-Modal Associations between Odors and Colors. Chemical Senses, 31, 531-538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjj057 [34] Anderson, R. (1973) Consumer Dissatisfaction: The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectancy on Perceived Product Performance. Journal of Marketing Research, 10, 38-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3149407 [35] Deliza, R. and MacFie, H. (1996) The Generation of Sensory Expectation by External Cues and Its Effect on Sensory Perception and Hedonic Ratings: A Review. Journal of Sensory Studies, 11, 103-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-459X.1996.tb00036.x [36] Zellner, D., Bartoli, A. and Eckard, R. (1991) Influence of Color on Odor Identification and Liking Ratings. American Journal of Psychology, 104, 547-561. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1422940 [37] Zellner, D. and Durlach, P. (2003) Effect of Color on Expected and Experienced Refreshment, Intensity, and Liking of Beverages. American Journal of Psychology, 116, 633-647.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1423663 [38] Fenko, A., Schifferstein, H., Huang, T. and Hekkert, P. (2009) What Makes Products Fresh: The Smell or the Colour? Food Quality and Preference, 20, 372-379.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2009.02.007 [39] Moss, M.C., Cooke, J., Wesnes, K. and Duckett, P. (2003) Aromas of Rosemary and Lavender Essential Oils Differentially Affect Cognition and Mood in Healthy Adults. International Journal of Neuroscience, 113, 15-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207450390161903 [40] Moss, M., Hewitt, S., Moss, L. and Wesnes, K. (2008) Modulation of Cognitive Performance and Mood by Aromas of Peppermint and Ylang-Ylang. International Journal of Neuroscience, 118, 59-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207450601042094 [41] Moss, L., Rouse, M., Wesnes, K.A. and Moss, M. (2010) Differential Effects of the Aromas of Salvia Species on Memory and Mood. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 25, 388-396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hup.1129 [42] Pton-Voak, I.S., Pound, N., Little, A.C. and Perrett, D.I. (2006) Personality Judgments from Natural and Composite Facial Images: More Evidence for a “Kernel of Truth” in Social Perception. Social Cognition, 24, 607-640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/soco.2006.24.5.607 [43] Kalick, S.M. (1988) Physical Attractiveness as a Status Cue. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 469-489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(88)90047-9 [44] Doty, R.L. and Cameron, E.L. (2009) Sex Differences and Reproductive Hormone Influences on Human Odor Perception. Physiology & Behavior, 97, 213-228.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.02.032 [45] Havlicek, J., Saxton, T.K., Roberts, S.C., Jozifkova, E., Lhota, S., Valentova, J. and Flegr, J. (2008) He Sees, She Smells? Male and Female Reports of Sensory Reliance in Mate Choice and Non-Mate Choice Contexts. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 565-570.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.06.019 [46] Herz, R.S. and Inzlicht, M. (2002) Sex Differences in Response to Physical and Social Factors Involved in Human Mate Selection: The Importance of Smell for Women. Evolution & Human Behavior, 23, 359-364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00095-8 [47] Winquist, L.A., Mohr, C.D. and Kenny, D.A. (1998) The Female Positivity Effect in the Perception of Others. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 370-388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2221 [48] Moncrieff, R.W. (1956) Olfactory Adaptation and Odour Likeness. The Journal of Physiology, 133, 301-316. [49] Ekman, G., Berglund, B., Berglund, U. and Lindvall, T. (2008) Perceived Intensity of Odor as a Function of Time of Adaptation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 8, 177-186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.1967.tb01392.x [50] Dalton, P. (1996) Odor Perception and Beliefs about Risk. Chemical Senses, 21, 447-458.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/21.4.447
[1] VandenBos, G. (2007) APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association, Washington. [2] Bull, R. and Rumsey, N. (1988) The Social Psychology of Facial Appearance. Springer-Verlag, London. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3782-2 [3] Langlois, J., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A., Larson, A., Hallam, M. and Smoot, M. (2000) Maxims or Myths of Beauty? A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 390-423.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390 [4] Hamermesh, D.S. (2011) Beauty Pays: Why Attractive People Are More Successful. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. [5] Thorndike, E. (1920) A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 4, 25-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0071663 [6] Zebrowitz, L., Hall, J., Murphy, N. and Rhodes, G. (2002) Looking Smart and Looking Good: Facial Cues to Intelligence and Their Origins. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 238-249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167202282009 [7] Dion, K., Berscheid, E. and Walster, E. (1972) What Is Beautiful Is Good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285-290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0033731 [8] Wilson, R.K. and Eckel, C C. (2006) Judging a Book by Its Cover: Beauty and Expectations in the Trust Game. Political Research Quarterly, 59, 189-202.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/106591290605900202 [9] Feingold, A. (1992) Good-Looking People Are Not What We Think. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 304-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.2.304 [10] Ritts, V., Patterson, M.L. and Tubbs, M.E. (1992) Expectations, Impressions, and Judgments of Physically Attractive Students: A Review. Review of Educational Research, 62, 413-426.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543062004413 [11] Jackson, L.A., Hunter, J.E. and Hodge, C.N. (1995) Physical Attractiveness and Intellectual Competence: A Meta-Analytic Review. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58, 108-122.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2787149 [12] Mulford, M., Orbell, J., Shatto, C. and Stockard, J. (1998) Physical Attractiveness, Opportunity, and Success in Everyday Exchange. The American Journal of Sociology, 103, 1565-1592.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/231401 [13] Watkins, L.M. and Johnston, L. (2002) Screening Job Applicants: The Impact of Physical Attractiveness and Application Quality. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 8, 76-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2389.00135 [14] Hosoda, M., Stone-Romero, E. and Coats, G. (2003) The Effects of Physical Attractiveness on Job-Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Studies. Personnel Psychology, 56, 431-462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00157.x [15] Fletcher, J. (2009) Beauty vs Brains: Early Labor Market Outcomes of High School Graduates. Economics Letters, 105, 321-325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2009.09.006 [16] Grosser, B.I., Monti-Bloch, L., Jennings-White, C. and Berliner, D.L. (2000) Behavioral and Electrophysiological Effects of Androstadienone, a Human Pheromone. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 289-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(99)00056-6 [17] Kirk-Smith, M. and Booth, D. (1980) Effects of Androstenone on Choice of Location in Other’s Presence. In: Van der Starre, H., Ed., Olfaction and Taste VII, IRL Press, London, 397-400. [18] Gustavson, A.R., Dawson, M.E. and Bonett, D.G. (1987) Androstenol, a Putative Human Pheromone, Affects Human (Homo sapiens) Male Choice Performance. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 101, 210-212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.101.2.210 [19] Berliner, D.L. (1994) Fragrance Compositions Containing Human Pheromones. United States Patent Office No. 5278141. [20] Soars, B. (2009) Driving Sales through Shoppers’ Sense of Sound, Sight, Smell and Touch. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37, 286-298.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09590550910941535 [21] Spangenberg, E.R., Sprott, D.E., Grohmann, B. and Tracy, D.L. (2006) Gender-Congruent Ambient Scent Influences on Approach and Avoidance Behaviors in a Retail Store. Journal of Business Research, 59, 1281-1287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.08.006 [22] Waskul, D.D. and Vannini, P. (2008) Smell, Odor, and Somatic Work: Sense-Making and Sensory Management. Social Psychology Quarterly, 71, 53-71.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019027250807100107 [23] Hyde, J. and DeLamater, J.D. (2011) Understanding Human Sexuality. 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York. [24] Berliner, D., Jennings-White, C. and Lavker, R. (1991) The Human Skin: Fragrances and Pheromones. The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 39, 671-679.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0960-0760(91)90266-8 [25] Baron, R. (1981) Olfaction and Human Social Behaviour: Effects of a Pleasant Scent on Attraction and Social Perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 611-616.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014616728174016 [26] Kirk-Smith, M.D. and Booth, D.A. (1990) The Effect of Five Odorants on Mood and the Judgments of Others. Chemical Signals in Vertebrates, 5, 48-54. [27] Capparuccini, O., Berrie, C. and Mazzatenta, A. (2010) The Potential Hedonic Role of Olfaction in Sexual Selection and Its Dominance in Visual Cross-Modal Interactions. Perception, 39, 1322-1329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/p6736 [28] Jacob, T.J., Fraser, C., Wang, L., Walker, V. and O’Connor, S. (2003) Psychophysical Evaluation of Responses to Pleasant and Mal-Odour Stimulation in Human Subjects; Adaptation, Dose Response and Gender Differences. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 48, 67-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8760(03)00020-5 [29] Gostelow, P., Parsons, S.A. and Stuetz, R.M. (2001) Odour Measurements for Sewage Treatment Works. Water Research, 35, 579-597. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00313-4 [30] Dematte, M., Osterbauer, R. and Spence, C. (2007) Olfactory Cues Modulate Facial Attractiveness. Chemical Senses, 32, 603-610. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjm030 [31] Cardello, A. (1994) Consumer Expectations and Their Role in Food Acceptance. In: MacFie, H. and Thomson, D., Eds., Measurement of Food Preference, Elsevier, London, 253-297.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2171-6_10 [32] Dalton, P. (2002) Olfaction. In: Yantis, S. and Pashler, H., Eds., Steven’s Handbook of Experimental Psychology: Vol. 1. Sensation and Perception, 3rd Edition, John Wiley, New York, 691-746. [33] Demattè, M., Sanabria, D. and Spence, C. (2006) Cross-Modal Associations between Odors and Colors. Chemical Senses, 31, 531-538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjj057 [34] Anderson, R. (1973) Consumer Dissatisfaction: The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectancy on Perceived Product Performance. Journal of Marketing Research, 10, 38-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3149407 [35] Deliza, R. and MacFie, H. (1996) The Generation of Sensory Expectation by External Cues and Its Effect on Sensory Perception and Hedonic Ratings: A Review. Journal of Sensory Studies, 11, 103-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-459X.1996.tb00036.x [36] Zellner, D., Bartoli, A. and Eckard, R. (1991) Influence of Color on Odor Identification and Liking Ratings. American Journal of Psychology, 104, 547-561. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1422940 [37] Zellner, D. and Durlach, P. (2003) Effect of Color on Expected and Experienced Refreshment, Intensity, and Liking of Beverages. American Journal of Psychology, 116, 633-647.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1423663 [38] Fenko, A., Schifferstein, H., Huang, T. and Hekkert, P. (2009) What Makes Products Fresh: The Smell or the Colour? Food Quality and Preference, 20, 372-379.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2009.02.007 [39] Moss, M.C., Cooke, J., Wesnes, K. and Duckett, P. (2003) Aromas of Rosemary and Lavender Essential Oils Differentially Affect Cognition and Mood in Healthy Adults. International Journal of Neuroscience, 113, 15-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207450390161903 [40] Moss, M., Hewitt, S., Moss, L. and Wesnes, K. (2008) Modulation of Cognitive Performance and Mood by Aromas of Peppermint and Ylang-Ylang. International Journal of Neuroscience, 118, 59-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207450601042094 [41] Moss, L., Rouse, M., Wesnes, K.A. and Moss, M. (2010) Differential Effects of the Aromas of Salvia Species on Memory and Mood. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 25, 388-396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hup.1129 [42] Pton-Voak, I.S., Pound, N., Little, A.C. and Perrett, D.I. (2006) Personality Judgments from Natural and Composite Facial Images: More Evidence for a “Kernel of Truth” in Social Perception. Social Cognition, 24, 607-640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/soco.2006.24.5.607 [43] Kalick, S.M. (1988) Physical Attractiveness as a Status Cue. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 469-489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(88)90047-9 [44] Doty, R.L. and Cameron, E.L. (2009) Sex Differences and Reproductive Hormone Influences on Human Odor Perception. Physiology & Behavior, 97, 213-228.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.02.032 [45] Havlicek, J., Saxton, T.K., Roberts, S.C., Jozifkova, E., Lhota, S., Valentova, J. and Flegr, J. (2008) He Sees, She Smells? Male and Female Reports of Sensory Reliance in Mate Choice and Non-Mate Choice Contexts. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 565-570.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.06.019 [46] Herz, R.S. and Inzlicht, M. (2002) Sex Differences in Response to Physical and Social Factors Involved in Human Mate Selection: The Importance of Smell for Women. Evolution & Human Behavior, 23, 359-364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00095-8 [47] Winquist, L.A., Mohr, C.D. and Kenny, D.A. (1998) The Female Positivity Effect in the Perception of Others. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 370-388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2221 [48] Moncrieff, R.W. (1956) Olfactory Adaptation and Odour Likeness. The Journal of Physiology, 133, 301-316. [49] Ekman, G., Berglund, B., Berglund, U. and Lindvall, T. (2008) Perceived Intensity of Odor as a Function of Time of Adaptation. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 8, 177-186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.1967.tb01392.x [50] Dalton, P. (1996) Odor Perception and Beliefs about Risk. Chemical Senses, 21, 447-458.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chemse/21.4.447