Decision Making in International Tertiary Education: The Role of National Image
Affiliation(s)
1 Department of Advertising, School of Communication, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China. 2 Training Department, Ogilvy & Mather, Beijing, China.
1 Department of Advertising, School of Communication, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China. 2 Training Department, Ogilvy & Mather, Beijing, China.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to explore the influence of the national image on the image of its tertiary education among non-nationals and on their choice of location for study. We present a conceptual model of how the image of the nation impacts on the image of tertiary education based upon Ajzen & Fishbein’s (1980) “theory of reasoned action”. With data from China & India, a model is developed from a calibration sample and tested against a validation sample using structural equation modelling. The model fits the data well and shows that a national image for Chic (prestigious, refined, elegant) and Enterprise (innovative, cool, trendy) has a positive influence on the beliefs about, attitudes towards and propensity to consume tertiary education offered by the UK. Our work indicates that there will be mileage in investing not just on the image of education itself, but on the image of the nation in the promotion of international tertiary education.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the influence of the national image on the image of its tertiary education among non-nationals and on their choice of location for study. We present a conceptual model of how the image of the nation impacts on the image of tertiary education based upon Ajzen & Fishbein’s (1980) “theory of reasoned action”. With data from China & India, a model is developed from a calibration sample and tested against a validation sample using structural equation modelling. The model fits the data well and shows that a national image for Chic (prestigious, refined, elegant) and Enterprise (innovative, cool, trendy) has a positive influence on the beliefs about, attitudes towards and propensity to consume tertiary education offered by the UK. Our work indicates that there will be mileage in investing not just on the image of education itself, but on the image of the nation in the promotion of international tertiary education.
KEYWORDS
Country of Origin, International Tertiary Education, Nation Brand, National Image, National Reputation, Place Brand
Country of Origin, International Tertiary Education, Nation Brand, National Image, National Reputation, Place Brand
Cite this paper
Cai, J. and Loo, T. (2014) Decision Making in International Tertiary Education: The Role of National Image. Advances in Journalism and Communication, 2, 109-120. doi: 10.4236/ajc.2014.23012.
Cai, J. and Loo, T. (2014) Decision Making in International Tertiary Education: The Role of National Image. Advances in Journalism and Communication, 2, 109-120. doi: 10.4236/ajc.2014.23012.
References
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J046v09n02_05 [4] Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. [5] Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing D. W. (1988). Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411-423.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411 [6] Bilkey, W. J., & Nes, E. (1982). Country of Origin Effects on Product Evaluation. Journal of International Business, 13, 89-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490539 [7] Binsardi, A., & Ekwulugo, F. (2003). International Marketing of British Education: Research on the Students’ Perception and the UK Market Penetration. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 21, 318-327.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02634500310490265 [8] Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer Behavior. Texas: Harcourt College Publishers. [9] Bourke, A. (2000). A Model of the Determinants Of international Trade in Higher Education. The Service Industries Journal, 20, 110-318. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02642060000000007 [10] British Council (2001). New Increase in Overseas Students in UK Higher Education.
http://www.britishcouncil.org/ecs/news/2001/0502 [11] Bullock, H. E., Harlow, L. L., & Mulaik, S. A. (1994). Causation Issues in Structural Equation Modelling Research. Structural Equation Modeling, 1, 253-267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705519409539977 [12] Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications and Programming. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [13] Chao, P. (1989). The Impact of Country Affiliation on the Creditability of Product Attribute Claims. Journal of Advertising Research, 29, 35-41. [14] Davies, G., & Chun, R. (2002). Branding a Business School. The 6th International Conference on Corporate Reputation, Seminar, Boston. [15] Davies, G., & Loo, T. (2006). Nation Branding: How the National Image of the United Kingdom Influences the Attractiveness of Its Outputs. The Academy of International Business Annual Meeting, Beijing. [16] Davies, G., Chun, R., da Silva, R. V., & Roper, S. (2003). Corporate Reputation and Competitiveness. London: Routledge. [17] Dotchin, J. A., & Oakland, J. S. (1994). Total Quality Management in Services: Part 1: Understanding and Classifying Services. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 11, 9-26.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02656719410056459 [18] FCO (2003). Think UK, China 2003. http://www.fco.gov.uk [19] Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading: Addison-Wesley. [20] Foxall, G., Goldsmith, R., & Brown, S. (2001). Consumer Psychology for Marketing. London: Thomson Learning. [21] Graby, F. (1993). Countries as Corporate Entities in International Markets. In N. Papadoupolos, & L. Heslop (Eds.), Product-Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing (pp. 257-283). New York: Haworth Press. [22] Harvey, J., & Busher, H. (1996). Marketing Schools and Consumer Choice. International Journal of Educational Management, 10, 26-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513549610122165 [23] Hatcher, L. (1994). A Step-by-Step Approach to Using the SAS System for Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling. Cary, NC: SAS Institute. [24] Hiscock, J. (2002). What Makes a Brand British? Marketing, 16. [25] Huber, R. M. (1992). Why Not Run a College Like a Business? Across the Board, 29, 28-32. [26] Jöreskog, K. G. (1993). Testing Structural Equation Models. In K. A. Bollen, & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing Structural Equation Models (pp. 294-316). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [27] Kinnell, M. (1989). International Marketing in UK Higher Education: Some Issues in Relation to Marketing Educational Programmes to Overseas Students. European Journal of Marketing, 23, 7-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000000566 [28] Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York: The Guilford Press. [29] Knight, G. A., & Calantone, R. J. (2000). A Flexible Model of Consumer Country-of-Origin Perceptions: A Cross-Cultural Investigation. International Marketing Review, 17, 127-145.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651330010322615 [30] Kotler, P., & Fox, K. (1995). Strategic Marketing for Educational Institutions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [31] Mazzarol, T. (1998). Critical Success Factors for International Education Marketing. International Journal of Educational Management, 12, 163-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513549810220623 [32] Mazzarol, T., & Soutar, G. (2002). Push-Pull Factors Influencing International Student Destination Choice. International Journal of Educational Management, 16, 82-90.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513540210418403 [33] McMahon, M. E. (1992). Higher Education in a World Market: An Historical Look at the Global Context of International Study. Higher Education, 24, 465-482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00137243 [34] Nunnally, J. C. (1967). Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. [35] Olins, W. (1999). Trading Identities. London: The Foreign Policy Centre. [36] Owalia, M. S., & Aspinwall, E. M. (1996). A Framework for the Dimensions of Quality in Higher Education. Quality Assurance in Education, 4, 12-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09684889610116012 [37] Papadopoulos, N., Heslop, L. A., & Bamossy, G. J. (1990). A Comparative Image Analysis of Domestic versus Imported Products. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 7, 283-294.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(90)90005-8 [38] Passow, T., Fehlmann, R., & Grahlow, H. (2003). The Country Reputation Cockpit: Translating Reputation Measurement into Reputation Management. The 7th International Conference on Corporate Reputation, Identity and Competitiveness, Manchester. [39] Rushton, A., & Carson, D. (2001). The Marketing of Services: Managing the Intangibles. European Journal of Marketing, 19, 19-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000004748 [40] Sauer, P., Young, M., & Unnava, H. (1991). An Experimental Investigation of the Processes behind the Country of Origin Effect. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 3, 29-60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J046v03n02_04 [41] Shostack, G. L. (1977). Breaking Free from Product Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 41, 73-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1250637 [42] Shostack, G. L. (1982). How to Design a Service? European Journal of Marketing, 16, 49-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000004799 [43] Silver, S., & Hill, S. (2002). Marketing: Selling Brand America. Journal of Business Strategy, 23, 10-15.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb040255 [44] Slater, S. F. (1995). Issues in Conducting Marketing Strategy Research. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 3, 257-270. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09652549500000016 [45] Smith, C. (2003). Beyond Cool Britannia. Locum Destination Review, 12, 4-7. [46] Srikatanyoo, N., & Gnoth, J. (2002). Country Image and International Tertiary Education. The Journal of Brand Management, 10, 139-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.bm.2540111 [47] Zeithaml, V. A., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). Problems and Strategies in Services Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 49, 33-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1251563
[1] Aaker, D. A. (1996). Building Strong Brands. New York: Free Press. [2] AGB (1992). International Competitiveness Study. Canberra: Education Information and Publication. [3] Ahmed, H. D., & d’Atous, A. (1996). Country of Origin and Brand Effects: A Multi-Dimensional and Multi-Attribute Study. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 9, 93-115.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J046v09n02_05 [4] Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. [5] Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing D. W. (1988). Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 411-423.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411 [6] Bilkey, W. J., & Nes, E. (1982). Country of Origin Effects on Product Evaluation. Journal of International Business, 13, 89-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490539 [7] Binsardi, A., & Ekwulugo, F. (2003). International Marketing of British Education: Research on the Students’ Perception and the UK Market Penetration. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 21, 318-327.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02634500310490265 [8] Blackwell, R. D., Miniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). Consumer Behavior. Texas: Harcourt College Publishers. [9] Bourke, A. (2000). A Model of the Determinants Of international Trade in Higher Education. The Service Industries Journal, 20, 110-318. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02642060000000007 [10] British Council (2001). New Increase in Overseas Students in UK Higher Education.
http://www.britishcouncil.org/ecs/news/2001/0502 [11] Bullock, H. E., Harlow, L. L., & Mulaik, S. A. (1994). Causation Issues in Structural Equation Modelling Research. Structural Equation Modeling, 1, 253-267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10705519409539977 [12] Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications and Programming. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [13] Chao, P. (1989). The Impact of Country Affiliation on the Creditability of Product Attribute Claims. Journal of Advertising Research, 29, 35-41. [14] Davies, G., & Chun, R. (2002). Branding a Business School. The 6th International Conference on Corporate Reputation, Seminar, Boston. [15] Davies, G., & Loo, T. (2006). Nation Branding: How the National Image of the United Kingdom Influences the Attractiveness of Its Outputs. The Academy of International Business Annual Meeting, Beijing. [16] Davies, G., Chun, R., da Silva, R. V., & Roper, S. (2003). Corporate Reputation and Competitiveness. London: Routledge. [17] Dotchin, J. A., & Oakland, J. S. (1994). Total Quality Management in Services: Part 1: Understanding and Classifying Services. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 11, 9-26.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02656719410056459 [18] FCO (2003). Think UK, China 2003. http://www.fco.gov.uk [19] Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading: Addison-Wesley. [20] Foxall, G., Goldsmith, R., & Brown, S. (2001). Consumer Psychology for Marketing. London: Thomson Learning. [21] Graby, F. (1993). Countries as Corporate Entities in International Markets. In N. Papadoupolos, & L. Heslop (Eds.), Product-Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing (pp. 257-283). New York: Haworth Press. [22] Harvey, J., & Busher, H. (1996). Marketing Schools and Consumer Choice. International Journal of Educational Management, 10, 26-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513549610122165 [23] Hatcher, L. (1994). A Step-by-Step Approach to Using the SAS System for Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling. Cary, NC: SAS Institute. [24] Hiscock, J. (2002). What Makes a Brand British? Marketing, 16. [25] Huber, R. M. (1992). Why Not Run a College Like a Business? Across the Board, 29, 28-32. [26] Jöreskog, K. G. (1993). Testing Structural Equation Models. In K. A. Bollen, & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing Structural Equation Models (pp. 294-316). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [27] Kinnell, M. (1989). International Marketing in UK Higher Education: Some Issues in Relation to Marketing Educational Programmes to Overseas Students. European Journal of Marketing, 23, 7-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000000566 [28] Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York: The Guilford Press. [29] Knight, G. A., & Calantone, R. J. (2000). A Flexible Model of Consumer Country-of-Origin Perceptions: A Cross-Cultural Investigation. International Marketing Review, 17, 127-145.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651330010322615 [30] Kotler, P., & Fox, K. (1995). Strategic Marketing for Educational Institutions. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [31] Mazzarol, T. (1998). Critical Success Factors for International Education Marketing. International Journal of Educational Management, 12, 163-175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513549810220623 [32] Mazzarol, T., & Soutar, G. (2002). Push-Pull Factors Influencing International Student Destination Choice. International Journal of Educational Management, 16, 82-90.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513540210418403 [33] McMahon, M. E. (1992). Higher Education in a World Market: An Historical Look at the Global Context of International Study. Higher Education, 24, 465-482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00137243 [34] Nunnally, J. C. (1967). Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. [35] Olins, W. (1999). Trading Identities. London: The Foreign Policy Centre. [36] Owalia, M. S., & Aspinwall, E. M. (1996). A Framework for the Dimensions of Quality in Higher Education. Quality Assurance in Education, 4, 12-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09684889610116012 [37] Papadopoulos, N., Heslop, L. A., & Bamossy, G. J. (1990). A Comparative Image Analysis of Domestic versus Imported Products. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 7, 283-294.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(90)90005-8 [38] Passow, T., Fehlmann, R., & Grahlow, H. (2003). The Country Reputation Cockpit: Translating Reputation Measurement into Reputation Management. The 7th International Conference on Corporate Reputation, Identity and Competitiveness, Manchester. [39] Rushton, A., & Carson, D. (2001). The Marketing of Services: Managing the Intangibles. European Journal of Marketing, 19, 19-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000004748 [40] Sauer, P., Young, M., & Unnava, H. (1991). An Experimental Investigation of the Processes behind the Country of Origin Effect. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 3, 29-60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J046v03n02_04 [41] Shostack, G. L. (1977). Breaking Free from Product Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 41, 73-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1250637 [42] Shostack, G. L. (1982). How to Design a Service? European Journal of Marketing, 16, 49-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000004799 [43] Silver, S., & Hill, S. (2002). Marketing: Selling Brand America. Journal of Business Strategy, 23, 10-15.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb040255 [44] Slater, S. F. (1995). Issues in Conducting Marketing Strategy Research. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 3, 257-270. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09652549500000016 [45] Smith, C. (2003). Beyond Cool Britannia. Locum Destination Review, 12, 4-7. [46] Srikatanyoo, N., & Gnoth, J. (2002). Country Image and International Tertiary Education. The Journal of Brand Management, 10, 139-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.bm.2540111 [47] Zeithaml, V. A., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). Problems and Strategies in Services Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 49, 33-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1251563