Neoplastic-Like CELL Changes of Normal Fibroblast Cells Associated with Evolutionary Conserved Maternal and Paternal Genomic Autonomous Behavior (Gonomery)
Author(s)
Kirsten H. Walen
ABSTRACT
The present comparative review discusses conservation of early evolutionary, relic genetics in the genome of man, which determine two different mechanistic reductive division systems expressed by normal, human diploid cells. The divisions were orderly and segregated genomes reductively to near-diploid daughter cells, which showed gain of a proliferative advantage (GPA) over cells of origin. This fact of GPA expression is a fundamental requirement for initiation of tumorigenesis. The division systems were responses to a carcinogen-free induction system, consisting of short (1 - 3 days) exposures of young cells to nutritional deprivation of amino acid glutamine (AAD). In recovery growth (2 - 4 days) endo-tetra/ochtoploid cells and normal diploid metaphase cells demonstrated chromosomal reductive divisions to respectively heterozygous and homozygous altered daughter cells. Both division systems showed co-segregating whole complements, which for reduction of the diploid metaphases could only arise from gonomeric-based autonomous behavior of maternal and paternal (mat/pat) genomes. The timely associated appearance with these latter divisions was fast growing small-cells (1/2 volume-size reduced from normal diploidy), which became homozygous from haploid, genomic doubling. Both reductive divisions thus produced genome altered progeny cells with GPA, which was associated with pre-cancer-like cell-phenotypic changes. Since both “undesirable” reductive divisions expressed orderly division sequences, their genetic controls were assumed to be “old genetics”, evolutionarily conserved in the genome of man. Support for this idea was a search for evidential material in the evolutionary record from primeval time, when haploid organisms were established. The theory was that endopolyploid and gonomery-based reductive divisions relieved the early eukaryotic organisms from accidental, non-proliferative diploidy and polyploidy, bringing the organism back to vegetative haploid proliferation. Asexual cycles were common for maintenance of propagating haploid and diploid early unicellular eukaryotes. Reduction of accidental diploidy was referred to as “one-step meiosis” which meant gonomeric-based maternal and paternal genomic independent segregations. This interpretation was supported by exceptional chromosomal behaviors. However, multiple divisions expressing non-disjunction was the choice-explanation from evolutionists, which today is also suggested for the rarer LL-1 near haploid leukemia. These preserved non-mitotic mechanistic divisions systems are today witnessed in apomixes and parthenogenesis in many animal phyla. Thus, the indications are the modern genome of man harbors, relic-genetics from past “good” evolvements assuring “stable” proliferation of ancient, primitive eukaryotes, but with cancer-like effects for normal human cells.
KEYWORDS
Cytogenetics, Pathologic Cytology, Endomitosis, Division Skewedness, Pathological Mitosis, Metaphase Rosettes, Homozygous, LOH, Growth Pattern, Nutrition, Amino Acid
Cytogenetics, Pathologic Cytology, Endomitosis, Division Skewedness, Pathological Mitosis, Metaphase Rosettes, Homozygous, LOH, Growth Pattern, Nutrition, Amino Acid
Cite this paper
Kirsten H. Walen (2014) Neoplastic-Like CELL Changes of Normal Fibroblast Cells Associated with Evolutionary Conserved Maternal and Paternal Genomic Autonomous Behavior (Gonomery). Journal of Cancer Therapy, 5, 860-877. doi: 10.4236/jct.2014.59094.
Kirsten H. Walen (2014) Neoplastic-Like CELL Changes of Normal Fibroblast Cells Associated with Evolutionary Conserved Maternal and Paternal Genomic Autonomous Behavior (Gonomery). Journal of Cancer Therapy, 5, 860-877. doi: 10.4236/jct.2014.59094.
References
[1] Loewenstein, W.R. (2000) The Touchstone of Life. The Oxford University Press, New York. [2] Lynch, M. (2006) The Origin of Eukaryotic Gene Structure. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 23, 450-468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msj050 [3] Zimmer, C. (2008) Now: The Rest of the Genome. The New York Times. [4] Solari, A.J. (2002) Primitive Forms of Meiosis: The Possible Evolution of Meiosis. Biocell, 26, 1-13. [5] Wilkins, A.S. and Holliday, R. (2009) The Evolution of Meiosis from Mitosis. Genetics, 181, 3-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.108.099762 [6] Egel, R. and Penny, D. (2008) On the Origin of Meiosis in Eukaryotes: Coevolution of Meiosis and Meiosis from Feeble Beginnings. Genome Dynamics and Stability, 3, 249-288.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/7050_2007_036 [7] Bernstein, H. and Bernstein, C. (2010) Evolutionary Origin of Recombination during Meiosis. BioScience, 60, 498-505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.7.5 [8] Raikov, I.B. (1982) The Protozoan Nucleus: Morphology and Evolution. Springer Verlag, Vienna and New York. [9] Raikov, I.B. (1994) The Diversity of Forms of Mitosis in Protozoa: A Comparative Review. European Journal of Protistology, 30, 253-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80072-6 [10] Walen, K.H. (2007) Bipolar Genome Reduction Division of Human Near-Senescent, Polyploid Fibroblast Cells. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, 173, 43-50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cancergencyto.2006.09.013 [11] Walen, K.H. (2007) Origin of Diplochromosomal Polyploidy in Near-Senescent Fibroblast Cultures: Telomeres and Chromosomal Stability (CIN). Cell Biology International, 31, 1447-1455.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2007.06.015 [12] Walen, K.H. (2012) Genome Reversion Process of Endopolyploidy Confers Chromosome Instability on the Descendent Diploid Cells. Cell Biology International, 36, 137-145.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CBI20110052 [13] Walen, K.H. (2013) Normal Human Cells Acquiring Proliferative Advantage to Hyperplasia-Like Growth-Morphology: Aberrant Progeny Cells Associated with Endopolyploid and Haploid Divisions. Cancer and Clinical Oncology, 2, 1-15. [14] Walen, K.H. (2014) Haploidization of Human Diploid Metaphase Cells: Is This Genome Reductive Mechanism Operational in Near-Haploid Leukemia? Journal of Cancer Therapy, 5, 101-114.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jct.2014.51013 [15] Hurst, L.D. and Nurse, P. (1991) A Note on the Evolution of Meiosis. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 150, 561-563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80447-3 [16] Kondrashov, A.S. (1994) Gradual Origin of Amphimixis by Natural Selection. In: Kirkpatrick, M., Ed., The Evolution of Haploid-Diploid Life Cycles, Vol. 25, 27-51. [17] Haig, D. (1993) Alternatives to Meiosis: The Unusual Genetics of Red Algae, Mirosporidia and Others. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 163, 15-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jtbi.1993.1104 [18] Walen, K.H. (1965) Spatial Relationships in the Replication of Chromosomal DNA. Genetics, 51, 915-929. [19] Kuhn, E.M. and Therman, E. (1986) Cytogenetics of Bloom’s Syndrome. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, 22, 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-4608(86)90132-9 [20] Ohno, S. (1970) Evolution by Gene Duplication. Georg Allen and Unwin, London. [21] Wolfe, K.H. (2001) Yesterday’s Polyploids and the Mystery of Diploidization. Nature Reviews Genetics, 2, 333-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35072009 [22] Barrett, M.T., Pritchard, D., Palanca-Wessels, C., Anderson, J., Reid, B.J. and Rabinovitch, P.S. (2003) Molecular Phenotype of Spontaneously Arising 4N (G2-tetraploid) Intermediates of Neoplastic Progression in Barrett’s Esophagus. Cancer Research, 63, 4211-4217. [23] Steinbeck, R.G. (2004) Dysplasia in View of the Cell Cycle. European Journal of Histochemistry, 48, 203-211. [24] Walen, K.H. (2009) Spindle Apparatus Uncoupling in Endo-Tetraploid Asymmetric Division of Stem and Non-Stem Cells. Cell Cycle, 8, 3234-3237. http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/cc.8.19.9570 [25] Walen, K.H. (2013) Senescence Arrest of Endopolyploid Cells Renders Senescence into One Mechanism for Positive Tumorigenesis. In: Hayat, M.A., Ed., Tumor Dormancy and Cellular Quiescence and Senescence, Vol. 1, Springer, Berlin, 215-226. [26] Erenpreisa, J., Salmina, K., Huna, A., Kosmacek, E.A., Cragg, M.S., Ianzini, F. and Anisimov, A. (2011) Polyploid Tumor Cells Elicit Paradiploid Progeny through Depolyploidizing Divisions and Regulated Autophagic Degradation. Cell Biology International, 35, 687-695.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CBI20100762 [27] Brito, D. and Rieder, C.L. (2006) Mitotic Checkpoint Slippage in Humans Occurs via Cyclin B Destruction in the Presence of an Active Checkpoint. Current Biology, 16, 1194-1200.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.04.043 [28] D’Amato, F. (1989) Polyploidy in Cell Differentiation. Caryologia, 42, 183-211.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00087114.1989.10796966 [29] Lee, H.O., Davidson, J.M. and Duronio, R.J. (2009) Endoreplication: Polyploidy with a Purpose. Genes & Development, 23, 2461-2477. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gad.1829209 [30] Davoli, T. and De Lange, T. (2012) Telomere-Driven Tetraploidization Occurs in Human Cells Undergoing Crisis and Promotes Transformation of Mouse Cells. Cancer Cell, 21, 765-776.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2012.03.044 [31] Fox, D.T. and Duronio, R.J. (2013) Endoreplication and Polyploidy: Insight into Development and Disease. Development, 140, 3-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.080531 [32] Becak, M.L., Becak, W. and Pereira, A. (2003) Somatic Pairing, Endomitosis and Chromosome Aberration in Snakes (Viperida and Colubridae). Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 75, 285-300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652003000300004 [33] Levan, A. and Hauschka, T.S. (1953) Endomitotic Reduplication Mechanisms in Ascites Tumors of the Mouse. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 14, 1-43. [34] Nawata, H., Kashino, G., Tano, K., Daino, K., Shimada, Y., Kugoh, H., Oshimura, M. and Watanabe, M. (2011) Dysregulation of Gene Expression in Artificial Human Trisomy Cells of Chromosome 8 Associated with Transformed Cell Phenotypes. PLoS One, 6, Article ID: e25319.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025319 [35] Davoli, T., Denchi, E.L. and De Lange, T. (2010) Persistent Telomere Damage Induces Bypass of Mitosis and Tetraploidy. Cell, 141, 81-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.031 [36] Cleveland, L.R. (1947) The Origin and Evolution of Meiosis. Science, 105, 287-289.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.105.2724.287 [37] Cleveland, L.R. (1956) Brief Accounts of the Sexual Cycles of the Flagellates of Cryptoserus. Journal of Protozoology, 3, 161-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1956.tb02452.x [38] Storckova, Z. and Pellman, D. (2004) From Polyploidy to Aneuploidy, Genomic Instability and Cancer. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 5, 45-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm1276 [39] Storchova, Z. and Kuffer, C. (2008) The Consequences of Tetraploidy. Journal of Cell Science, 121, 3859-3866. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.039537 [40] Schvartzman, J.M., Sotillo, R. and Benezra, R. (2010) Mitotic Chromosomal Instability and Cancer: Mouse Modeling of the Human Disease. Nature Reviews Cancer, 10, 102-115.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc2781 [41] Ravid, K., Lu, J., Zimmet, J.M. and Jones, M.R. (2002) Roads to Polyploidy: The Megakaryocyte Example. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 190, 7-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.10035 [42] Margulis, L., Enzien, M. and McKhann, H.I. (1990) Revival of Dobell’s “Chromidia” Hypothesis: Chromatin Bodies in Amoebomastigote Paratetramitus jugosus. Biological Bulletin, 178, 300-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1541832 [43] Edgar, B.A. and Orr-Weaver, T.I. (2001) Endoreplication Cell Cycles More for Less. Cell, 105, 297-306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00334-8 [44] Ganem, N.J. and Pellman, D. (2012) Linking Abnormal Mitosis to the Acquisition of DNA Damage. Journal of Cell Biology, 199, 871-881. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201210040 [45] Gondek, L.P., Tiu, R., O’Keefe, L., Sekeres, M.A., Theil, K.S. and Maciejewski, J.P. (2008) Chromosomal Lesions and Uniparental Disomy Detected by SNP Arrays in MDS, MDS/MPD and MDS Derived AML. Blood, 111, 1534-1542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-05-092304 [46] Nielaender, I., Martin-Subero, J.I., Wagner, F., Martinez-Climent, J.A. and Siebert, R. (2006) Partial Uniparental Disomy: A Recurrent Genetic Mechanism Alternative to Chromosomal Deletion in Malignant Lymphoma. Leukemia, 20, 904-905. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.leu.2404173 [47] Mollinedo, F. and Gajate, C. (2003) Microtubules, Microtubule-Interfering Agents and Apoptosis. Apoptosis, 8, 413-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025513106330 [48] Tautvydas, K.J. (1976) Evidence for Chromosome Endoreduplication in Eudorina californica, a Colonic Alga. Differentiation, 5, 35-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-0436.1976.tb00889.x [49] Enzien, M., McKhann, H.I. and Margulis, L. (1989) Ecology and Life History of an Amoebomastigote, Paratetramitus jugosus, from a Microbial Mat: New Evidence for Multiple Fission. Biological Bulletin, 177, 110-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1541839 [50] Walen, K.H. (2002) The Origin of Transformed Cells: Studies of Spontaneous and Induced Cell Transformation in Cell Cultures from Marsupials, a Snail and Human Amniocytes. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, 133, 45-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-4608(01)00572-6 [51] Walen, K.H. (2010) Mitosis Is Not the Only Distributor of Mutated Cells: Non-Mitotic Endopolyploid Cells Produce Reproductive Genome Reduced Cells. Cell Biology International, 34, 867-872.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CBI20090502 [52] Grell, K.G. and Ruthmann, A. (1964) Uber die Karyologie des Radiolars Aulachanta scolymantha und Feinstruktur seiner Chromosomen. Chromosoma, 15, 185-211.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00285729 [53] Saunders, W.S., Shuster, M., Huang, X., Gharaibe, B., Enyenihi, A.H., Petersen, J. and Gollin, S.M. (2000) Chromosomal Instability and Cytoskeleton Defects in Oral Cancer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 303-308.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.1.303 [54] Gonzalez-Robles, A., Cristobal-Ramos, A.R., Gonzalez-Lazaro, M., Omana-Molina, M. and Martinez-Palomo, A. (2009) Naegleria fowleri: Light and Electron Microscopy Study of Mitosis. Experimental Parasitology, 122, 212-217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2009.03.016 [55] Brenner, S., Branch, A., Meredith, S. and Berns, M.W. (1977) The Absence of Centrioles from Spindle Poles of Rat Kangaroo PtK1 Cells Undergoing Meiotic-Like Reduction Division in Vitro. Journal of Cell Biology, 72, 368-379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.72.2.368 [56] Sherratt, D.J. (2003) Bacterial Chromosome Dynamics. Science, 301, 780-785.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1084780 [57] Castagnetti, S., Oliferenko, S. and Nurse, P. (2010) Fission Yeast Cells Undergo Nuclear Division in the Absence of Spindle Microtubules. PLoS Biology, 8, Article ID: e1000512.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000512 [58] Travis, J. (2007) Return of the Matrix. Science, 318, 1400-1401.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.318.5855.1400 [59] Johansen, K.M., Forer, A., Yao, C., Girton, J. and Johansen, J. (2011) Do Nuclear Envelope and Intranuclear Proteins Reorganize during Mitosis to form an Elastic, Hydrogel-Like Spindle Matrix? Chromosome Research, 19, 345-365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10577-011-9187-6 [60] Swanson, C.P. (1957) Cytology and Cytogenetics. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 526-532. [61] Rach, E.M. and Wyngaard, G.A. (2008) Gonomery and Chromatin Diminution in Mesocyclops longisetus (Copepoda). Journal of Crustacean Biology, 28, 180-184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1651/07-2847R.1 [62] Leeb, M., Walker, R., Mansfield, B., Nichols, J., Smith, A. and Wutz, A. (2012) Germline Potential of Parthenogenic Haploid Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells. Development, 139, 3301-3305.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.083675 [63] Sarto, G.E., Stubblefield, P.A., Lurain, J. and Therman, E. (1984) Mechanisms of Growth in Hydatidiform Moles. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 148, 1014-1023.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(84)90545-3 [64] Kukita, Y., Miyatake, K., Stokowski, R., Hinds, D., Higasa, N., Wake, N., et al. (2013) Genome-Wide Definitive Haplotypes Determined Using a Collection of Complete Hydatidiform Moles. Genome Research, 15, 1511-1518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gr.4371105 [65] Gerstein, A.C., Chun, H.J.E., Grant, A. and Otto, S.P. (2006) Genomic Convergence toward Diploidy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PLoS Genetics, 2, 1396-1401. [66] Alabrudzinska, M., Skoneczny, M. and Skoneczna, A. (2011) Diploid-Specific Genome Stability Genes of S. cerevisiae: Genomic Screen Reveals Haploidization as an Escape from Persisting DNA Rearrangement Stress. PLoS One, 6, Article ID: e21124.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/annotation/77daccf9-9976-4d0e-b666-35a900cb2d17 [67] Nagele, R.G., Freeman, T., McMorrow, L. and Lee, H.Y. (1995) Precise Spatial Positioning of Chromosomes during Prometaphase: Evidence for Chromosomal Order. Science, 270, 1831-1835. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.270.5243.1831 [68] Bolzer, A., Kreth, G., Solovei, I., Koehler, D., Saracoglu, K., Fauth, C., et al. (2005) Three-Dimensional Maps of All Chromosomes in Human Male Fibroblast Nuclei and Prometaphase Rosettes. PLoS Biology, 3, 826-842. [69] Mayer, W., Smith, A., Fundele, R. and Haaf, T. (2000) Spatial Separation of Parental Genomes in Preimplantation Mouse Embryos. Journal of Cell Biology, 148, 629-634.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.148.4.629 [70] Costello, D.P. (1970) Identical Linear Order of Chromosomes in both Gametes of the Acoel Tubularian Polychoerus carmelensis: A Preliminary Note. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 67, 1951-1958. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.67.4.1951 [71] Stern, C. (1958) The Nucleus and Somatic Cell Variation. Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology, 52, 1-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.1030520404 [72] Huskins, C.L. and Cheng, K.C. (1950) Segregation and Reduction in Somatic Tissues. IV. Reductional Grouping Induced in Alliun cepa by Low Temperature. Journal of Heredity, 14, 13-18. [73] Glass, E. (1957) Das Problem der Genomsonderung in den Mitosen unbehandelter Rattenlebern. Chromosoma, 8, 468-492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01259515 [74] Glazko, T.T. (2004) Chromosome Subdividing to Haploid Sets in Diploid Metaphase Plates of Some Mammalian Species. In: Proceedings of 15th International Chromosome Conference, London, 5-10 September 2004, 63. [75] Straight, A.F., Marshall, W.F., Sedat, J.W. and Murray, A.W. (1997) Mitosis in Living Budding Yeast: Anaphase A but No Metaphase. Science, 277, 574-578.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.574 [76] Walen KH. (2011) Normal Human Cell Conversion to 3-D Cancer-Like Growth: Genome Damage, Endopolyploidy, Senescence Escape, and Cell Polarity Change/Loss. Journal of Cancer Therapy, 2, 181-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jct.2011.22023 [77] Zhang, S., Mercado-Uribe, I., Xing, Z., Sun, B., Kuang, J. and Liu, J. (2013) Generation of Cancer-Stem-Like Cells through the Formation of Polyploid Giant Cells. Oncogene, 33, 116-128. [78] Renpreisa, J. and Cragg, M.S. (2007) Cancer: A Matter of Life Cycles. Cell Biology International, 31, 1507-1510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2007.08.013 [79] Wheatley, D.N. (2008) Growing Evidence of Repopulation of Regressed Tumors by the Division of Giant Cells. Cell Biology International, 32, 1029-1030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2008.06.001 [80] Shackney, S.E. and Shanky, T.V. (1995) Genetic and Phenotypic Heterogeneity of Human Malignancies: Finding Order in Chaos. Cytometry, 21, 2-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cyto.990210103 [81] Puig, P.E., Guilly, M.N., Bouchot, A., Droin, N., Cathelin, D., Bouyer, F., et al. (2008) Tumor Cell Can Escape DNA-Damaging Sisplatin through DNA Endoreduplication and Reversible Polyploidy. Cell Biology International, 32, 1031-1043. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2008.04.021 [82] Mitelman, F. (1988) Catalog of Chromosome Aberrations in Cancer. Alan Liss, Inc., New York. [83] Heim, S. and Mitelman, F. (1995) Cancer Cytogenetics: Chromosomal and Molecular Genetic Aberrations of Tumor Cells. 2nd Edition, Wiley-Liss, Inc., New York. [84] Mandahl, N., Johansson, B., Mertens, F. and Mitelman, F. (2012) Disease-Associated Patterns of Disomic Chromosomes in Hyperhaploid Neoplasms. Genes, Chromosomes and Cancer, 51, 536-544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gcc.21947 [85] Olsson, L., Paulsson, K., Bovee, J.V. and Nord, K.H. (2011) Correction: Clonal Evolution through Loss of Chromosomes and Subsequent Polyploidization in Chondrosarcoma. PLoS ONE, 6, 1-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/annotation/8f845569-8244-416b-b15e-89562177ce32 [86] Safavi, S., Forestier, E., Golovleva, I., Barbany, G., Nord, K.H., Moorman, A.V., Harrison, C.J., Johansson, B. and Paulsson, K. (2013) Loss of Chromosomes Is the Primary Event in Near-Haploid and Low-Hypodiploid Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Leukemia, 27, 248-250.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/leu.2012.227 [87] Peters, B.A., Kermani, B.G., Sparks, A.B., Alferov, O., Alexeev, A., Jiang, Y., et al. (2012) Accurate Whole-Genomic Sequencing and Haplotyping from 10 to 20 Human Cells. Nature, 487, 190-195. [88] Freed, J.J. and Schatz, S.A. (1969) Chromosome Aberrations in Cultured Cells Deprived of Single Essential Amino Acids. Experimental Cell Research, 55, 393-409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4827(69)90574-6 [89] Deberardinis, R.J. and Cheng, T. (2010) Q’s Next: The Diverse Function of Glutamine in Metabolism, Cell Biology and Cancer. Oncogene, 29, 313-324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/onc.2009.358 [90] Zhang, J., Wang, X., Zhao, Y., Chen, B., Suo, G. and Dai, J. (2006) Neoplastic Transformation of Human Diploid Fibroblasts after Long-Term Serum Starvation. Cancer Letters, 243, 101-108.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2005.11.022 [91] Lengauer, C., Kinzler, K.W. and Vogelstein, B. (1998) Genetic Instability in Human Cancers. Nature, 396, 643-649. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/25292
[1] Loewenstein, W.R. (2000) The Touchstone of Life. The Oxford University Press, New York. [2] Lynch, M. (2006) The Origin of Eukaryotic Gene Structure. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 23, 450-468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msj050 [3] Zimmer, C. (2008) Now: The Rest of the Genome. The New York Times. [4] Solari, A.J. (2002) Primitive Forms of Meiosis: The Possible Evolution of Meiosis. Biocell, 26, 1-13. [5] Wilkins, A.S. and Holliday, R. (2009) The Evolution of Meiosis from Mitosis. Genetics, 181, 3-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.108.099762 [6] Egel, R. and Penny, D. (2008) On the Origin of Meiosis in Eukaryotes: Coevolution of Meiosis and Meiosis from Feeble Beginnings. Genome Dynamics and Stability, 3, 249-288.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/7050_2007_036 [7] Bernstein, H. and Bernstein, C. (2010) Evolutionary Origin of Recombination during Meiosis. BioScience, 60, 498-505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.7.5 [8] Raikov, I.B. (1982) The Protozoan Nucleus: Morphology and Evolution. Springer Verlag, Vienna and New York. [9] Raikov, I.B. (1994) The Diversity of Forms of Mitosis in Protozoa: A Comparative Review. European Journal of Protistology, 30, 253-269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0932-4739(11)80072-6 [10] Walen, K.H. (2007) Bipolar Genome Reduction Division of Human Near-Senescent, Polyploid Fibroblast Cells. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, 173, 43-50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cancergencyto.2006.09.013 [11] Walen, K.H. (2007) Origin of Diplochromosomal Polyploidy in Near-Senescent Fibroblast Cultures: Telomeres and Chromosomal Stability (CIN). Cell Biology International, 31, 1447-1455.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2007.06.015 [12] Walen, K.H. (2012) Genome Reversion Process of Endopolyploidy Confers Chromosome Instability on the Descendent Diploid Cells. Cell Biology International, 36, 137-145.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CBI20110052 [13] Walen, K.H. (2013) Normal Human Cells Acquiring Proliferative Advantage to Hyperplasia-Like Growth-Morphology: Aberrant Progeny Cells Associated with Endopolyploid and Haploid Divisions. Cancer and Clinical Oncology, 2, 1-15. [14] Walen, K.H. (2014) Haploidization of Human Diploid Metaphase Cells: Is This Genome Reductive Mechanism Operational in Near-Haploid Leukemia? Journal of Cancer Therapy, 5, 101-114.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jct.2014.51013 [15] Hurst, L.D. and Nurse, P. (1991) A Note on the Evolution of Meiosis. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 150, 561-563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80447-3 [16] Kondrashov, A.S. (1994) Gradual Origin of Amphimixis by Natural Selection. In: Kirkpatrick, M., Ed., The Evolution of Haploid-Diploid Life Cycles, Vol. 25, 27-51. [17] Haig, D. (1993) Alternatives to Meiosis: The Unusual Genetics of Red Algae, Mirosporidia and Others. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 163, 15-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jtbi.1993.1104 [18] Walen, K.H. (1965) Spatial Relationships in the Replication of Chromosomal DNA. Genetics, 51, 915-929. [19] Kuhn, E.M. and Therman, E. (1986) Cytogenetics of Bloom’s Syndrome. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, 22, 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-4608(86)90132-9 [20] Ohno, S. (1970) Evolution by Gene Duplication. Georg Allen and Unwin, London. [21] Wolfe, K.H. (2001) Yesterday’s Polyploids and the Mystery of Diploidization. Nature Reviews Genetics, 2, 333-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35072009 [22] Barrett, M.T., Pritchard, D., Palanca-Wessels, C., Anderson, J., Reid, B.J. and Rabinovitch, P.S. (2003) Molecular Phenotype of Spontaneously Arising 4N (G2-tetraploid) Intermediates of Neoplastic Progression in Barrett’s Esophagus. Cancer Research, 63, 4211-4217. [23] Steinbeck, R.G. (2004) Dysplasia in View of the Cell Cycle. European Journal of Histochemistry, 48, 203-211. [24] Walen, K.H. (2009) Spindle Apparatus Uncoupling in Endo-Tetraploid Asymmetric Division of Stem and Non-Stem Cells. Cell Cycle, 8, 3234-3237. http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/cc.8.19.9570 [25] Walen, K.H. (2013) Senescence Arrest of Endopolyploid Cells Renders Senescence into One Mechanism for Positive Tumorigenesis. In: Hayat, M.A., Ed., Tumor Dormancy and Cellular Quiescence and Senescence, Vol. 1, Springer, Berlin, 215-226. [26] Erenpreisa, J., Salmina, K., Huna, A., Kosmacek, E.A., Cragg, M.S., Ianzini, F. and Anisimov, A. (2011) Polyploid Tumor Cells Elicit Paradiploid Progeny through Depolyploidizing Divisions and Regulated Autophagic Degradation. Cell Biology International, 35, 687-695.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CBI20100762 [27] Brito, D. and Rieder, C.L. (2006) Mitotic Checkpoint Slippage in Humans Occurs via Cyclin B Destruction in the Presence of an Active Checkpoint. Current Biology, 16, 1194-1200.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.04.043 [28] D’Amato, F. (1989) Polyploidy in Cell Differentiation. Caryologia, 42, 183-211.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00087114.1989.10796966 [29] Lee, H.O., Davidson, J.M. and Duronio, R.J. (2009) Endoreplication: Polyploidy with a Purpose. Genes & Development, 23, 2461-2477. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gad.1829209 [30] Davoli, T. and De Lange, T. (2012) Telomere-Driven Tetraploidization Occurs in Human Cells Undergoing Crisis and Promotes Transformation of Mouse Cells. Cancer Cell, 21, 765-776.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2012.03.044 [31] Fox, D.T. and Duronio, R.J. (2013) Endoreplication and Polyploidy: Insight into Development and Disease. Development, 140, 3-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.080531 [32] Becak, M.L., Becak, W. and Pereira, A. (2003) Somatic Pairing, Endomitosis and Chromosome Aberration in Snakes (Viperida and Colubridae). Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 75, 285-300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652003000300004 [33] Levan, A. and Hauschka, T.S. (1953) Endomitotic Reduplication Mechanisms in Ascites Tumors of the Mouse. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 14, 1-43. [34] Nawata, H., Kashino, G., Tano, K., Daino, K., Shimada, Y., Kugoh, H., Oshimura, M. and Watanabe, M. (2011) Dysregulation of Gene Expression in Artificial Human Trisomy Cells of Chromosome 8 Associated with Transformed Cell Phenotypes. PLoS One, 6, Article ID: e25319.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025319 [35] Davoli, T., Denchi, E.L. and De Lange, T. (2010) Persistent Telomere Damage Induces Bypass of Mitosis and Tetraploidy. Cell, 141, 81-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.031 [36] Cleveland, L.R. (1947) The Origin and Evolution of Meiosis. Science, 105, 287-289.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.105.2724.287 [37] Cleveland, L.R. (1956) Brief Accounts of the Sexual Cycles of the Flagellates of Cryptoserus. Journal of Protozoology, 3, 161-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1956.tb02452.x [38] Storckova, Z. and Pellman, D. (2004) From Polyploidy to Aneuploidy, Genomic Instability and Cancer. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 5, 45-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm1276 [39] Storchova, Z. and Kuffer, C. (2008) The Consequences of Tetraploidy. Journal of Cell Science, 121, 3859-3866. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.039537 [40] Schvartzman, J.M., Sotillo, R. and Benezra, R. (2010) Mitotic Chromosomal Instability and Cancer: Mouse Modeling of the Human Disease. Nature Reviews Cancer, 10, 102-115.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc2781 [41] Ravid, K., Lu, J., Zimmet, J.M. and Jones, M.R. (2002) Roads to Polyploidy: The Megakaryocyte Example. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 190, 7-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.10035 [42] Margulis, L., Enzien, M. and McKhann, H.I. (1990) Revival of Dobell’s “Chromidia” Hypothesis: Chromatin Bodies in Amoebomastigote Paratetramitus jugosus. Biological Bulletin, 178, 300-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1541832 [43] Edgar, B.A. and Orr-Weaver, T.I. (2001) Endoreplication Cell Cycles More for Less. Cell, 105, 297-306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00334-8 [44] Ganem, N.J. and Pellman, D. (2012) Linking Abnormal Mitosis to the Acquisition of DNA Damage. Journal of Cell Biology, 199, 871-881. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201210040 [45] Gondek, L.P., Tiu, R., O’Keefe, L., Sekeres, M.A., Theil, K.S. and Maciejewski, J.P. (2008) Chromosomal Lesions and Uniparental Disomy Detected by SNP Arrays in MDS, MDS/MPD and MDS Derived AML. Blood, 111, 1534-1542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-05-092304 [46] Nielaender, I., Martin-Subero, J.I., Wagner, F., Martinez-Climent, J.A. and Siebert, R. (2006) Partial Uniparental Disomy: A Recurrent Genetic Mechanism Alternative to Chromosomal Deletion in Malignant Lymphoma. Leukemia, 20, 904-905. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.leu.2404173 [47] Mollinedo, F. and Gajate, C. (2003) Microtubules, Microtubule-Interfering Agents and Apoptosis. Apoptosis, 8, 413-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1025513106330 [48] Tautvydas, K.J. (1976) Evidence for Chromosome Endoreduplication in Eudorina californica, a Colonic Alga. Differentiation, 5, 35-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-0436.1976.tb00889.x [49] Enzien, M., McKhann, H.I. and Margulis, L. (1989) Ecology and Life History of an Amoebomastigote, Paratetramitus jugosus, from a Microbial Mat: New Evidence for Multiple Fission. Biological Bulletin, 177, 110-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1541839 [50] Walen, K.H. (2002) The Origin of Transformed Cells: Studies of Spontaneous and Induced Cell Transformation in Cell Cultures from Marsupials, a Snail and Human Amniocytes. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics, 133, 45-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-4608(01)00572-6 [51] Walen, K.H. (2010) Mitosis Is Not the Only Distributor of Mutated Cells: Non-Mitotic Endopolyploid Cells Produce Reproductive Genome Reduced Cells. Cell Biology International, 34, 867-872.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CBI20090502 [52] Grell, K.G. and Ruthmann, A. (1964) Uber die Karyologie des Radiolars Aulachanta scolymantha und Feinstruktur seiner Chromosomen. Chromosoma, 15, 185-211.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00285729 [53] Saunders, W.S., Shuster, M., Huang, X., Gharaibe, B., Enyenihi, A.H., Petersen, J. and Gollin, S.M. (2000) Chromosomal Instability and Cytoskeleton Defects in Oral Cancer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 303-308.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.1.303 [54] Gonzalez-Robles, A., Cristobal-Ramos, A.R., Gonzalez-Lazaro, M., Omana-Molina, M. and Martinez-Palomo, A. (2009) Naegleria fowleri: Light and Electron Microscopy Study of Mitosis. Experimental Parasitology, 122, 212-217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2009.03.016 [55] Brenner, S., Branch, A., Meredith, S. and Berns, M.W. (1977) The Absence of Centrioles from Spindle Poles of Rat Kangaroo PtK1 Cells Undergoing Meiotic-Like Reduction Division in Vitro. Journal of Cell Biology, 72, 368-379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.72.2.368 [56] Sherratt, D.J. (2003) Bacterial Chromosome Dynamics. Science, 301, 780-785.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1084780 [57] Castagnetti, S., Oliferenko, S. and Nurse, P. (2010) Fission Yeast Cells Undergo Nuclear Division in the Absence of Spindle Microtubules. PLoS Biology, 8, Article ID: e1000512.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000512 [58] Travis, J. (2007) Return of the Matrix. Science, 318, 1400-1401.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.318.5855.1400 [59] Johansen, K.M., Forer, A., Yao, C., Girton, J. and Johansen, J. (2011) Do Nuclear Envelope and Intranuclear Proteins Reorganize during Mitosis to form an Elastic, Hydrogel-Like Spindle Matrix? Chromosome Research, 19, 345-365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10577-011-9187-6 [60] Swanson, C.P. (1957) Cytology and Cytogenetics. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 526-532. [61] Rach, E.M. and Wyngaard, G.A. (2008) Gonomery and Chromatin Diminution in Mesocyclops longisetus (Copepoda). Journal of Crustacean Biology, 28, 180-184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1651/07-2847R.1 [62] Leeb, M., Walker, R., Mansfield, B., Nichols, J., Smith, A. and Wutz, A. (2012) Germline Potential of Parthenogenic Haploid Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells. Development, 139, 3301-3305.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.083675 [63] Sarto, G.E., Stubblefield, P.A., Lurain, J. and Therman, E. (1984) Mechanisms of Growth in Hydatidiform Moles. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 148, 1014-1023.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(84)90545-3 [64] Kukita, Y., Miyatake, K., Stokowski, R., Hinds, D., Higasa, N., Wake, N., et al. (2013) Genome-Wide Definitive Haplotypes Determined Using a Collection of Complete Hydatidiform Moles. Genome Research, 15, 1511-1518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/gr.4371105 [65] Gerstein, A.C., Chun, H.J.E., Grant, A. and Otto, S.P. (2006) Genomic Convergence toward Diploidy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PLoS Genetics, 2, 1396-1401. [66] Alabrudzinska, M., Skoneczny, M. and Skoneczna, A. (2011) Diploid-Specific Genome Stability Genes of S. cerevisiae: Genomic Screen Reveals Haploidization as an Escape from Persisting DNA Rearrangement Stress. PLoS One, 6, Article ID: e21124.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/annotation/77daccf9-9976-4d0e-b666-35a900cb2d17 [67] Nagele, R.G., Freeman, T., McMorrow, L. and Lee, H.Y. (1995) Precise Spatial Positioning of Chromosomes during Prometaphase: Evidence for Chromosomal Order. Science, 270, 1831-1835. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.270.5243.1831 [68] Bolzer, A., Kreth, G., Solovei, I., Koehler, D., Saracoglu, K., Fauth, C., et al. (2005) Three-Dimensional Maps of All Chromosomes in Human Male Fibroblast Nuclei and Prometaphase Rosettes. PLoS Biology, 3, 826-842. [69] Mayer, W., Smith, A., Fundele, R. and Haaf, T. (2000) Spatial Separation of Parental Genomes in Preimplantation Mouse Embryos. Journal of Cell Biology, 148, 629-634.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.148.4.629 [70] Costello, D.P. (1970) Identical Linear Order of Chromosomes in both Gametes of the Acoel Tubularian Polychoerus carmelensis: A Preliminary Note. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 67, 1951-1958. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.67.4.1951 [71] Stern, C. (1958) The Nucleus and Somatic Cell Variation. Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology, 52, 1-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcp.1030520404 [72] Huskins, C.L. and Cheng, K.C. (1950) Segregation and Reduction in Somatic Tissues. IV. Reductional Grouping Induced in Alliun cepa by Low Temperature. Journal of Heredity, 14, 13-18. [73] Glass, E. (1957) Das Problem der Genomsonderung in den Mitosen unbehandelter Rattenlebern. Chromosoma, 8, 468-492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01259515 [74] Glazko, T.T. (2004) Chromosome Subdividing to Haploid Sets in Diploid Metaphase Plates of Some Mammalian Species. In: Proceedings of 15th International Chromosome Conference, London, 5-10 September 2004, 63. [75] Straight, A.F., Marshall, W.F., Sedat, J.W. and Murray, A.W. (1997) Mitosis in Living Budding Yeast: Anaphase A but No Metaphase. Science, 277, 574-578.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.574 [76] Walen KH. (2011) Normal Human Cell Conversion to 3-D Cancer-Like Growth: Genome Damage, Endopolyploidy, Senescence Escape, and Cell Polarity Change/Loss. Journal of Cancer Therapy, 2, 181-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jct.2011.22023 [77] Zhang, S., Mercado-Uribe, I., Xing, Z., Sun, B., Kuang, J. and Liu, J. (2013) Generation of Cancer-Stem-Like Cells through the Formation of Polyploid Giant Cells. Oncogene, 33, 116-128. [78] Renpreisa, J. and Cragg, M.S. (2007) Cancer: A Matter of Life Cycles. Cell Biology International, 31, 1507-1510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2007.08.013 [79] Wheatley, D.N. (2008) Growing Evidence of Repopulation of Regressed Tumors by the Division of Giant Cells. Cell Biology International, 32, 1029-1030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2008.06.001 [80] Shackney, S.E. and Shanky, T.V. (1995) Genetic and Phenotypic Heterogeneity of Human Malignancies: Finding Order in Chaos. Cytometry, 21, 2-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cyto.990210103 [81] Puig, P.E., Guilly, M.N., Bouchot, A., Droin, N., Cathelin, D., Bouyer, F., et al. (2008) Tumor Cell Can Escape DNA-Damaging Sisplatin through DNA Endoreduplication and Reversible Polyploidy. Cell Biology International, 32, 1031-1043. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2008.04.021 [82] Mitelman, F. (1988) Catalog of Chromosome Aberrations in Cancer. Alan Liss, Inc., New York. [83] Heim, S. and Mitelman, F. (1995) Cancer Cytogenetics: Chromosomal and Molecular Genetic Aberrations of Tumor Cells. 2nd Edition, Wiley-Liss, Inc., New York. [84] Mandahl, N., Johansson, B., Mertens, F. and Mitelman, F. (2012) Disease-Associated Patterns of Disomic Chromosomes in Hyperhaploid Neoplasms. Genes, Chromosomes and Cancer, 51, 536-544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gcc.21947 [85] Olsson, L., Paulsson, K., Bovee, J.V. and Nord, K.H. (2011) Correction: Clonal Evolution through Loss of Chromosomes and Subsequent Polyploidization in Chondrosarcoma. PLoS ONE, 6, 1-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/annotation/8f845569-8244-416b-b15e-89562177ce32 [86] Safavi, S., Forestier, E., Golovleva, I., Barbany, G., Nord, K.H., Moorman, A.V., Harrison, C.J., Johansson, B. and Paulsson, K. (2013) Loss of Chromosomes Is the Primary Event in Near-Haploid and Low-Hypodiploid Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Leukemia, 27, 248-250.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/leu.2012.227 [87] Peters, B.A., Kermani, B.G., Sparks, A.B., Alferov, O., Alexeev, A., Jiang, Y., et al. (2012) Accurate Whole-Genomic Sequencing and Haplotyping from 10 to 20 Human Cells. Nature, 487, 190-195. [88] Freed, J.J. and Schatz, S.A. (1969) Chromosome Aberrations in Cultured Cells Deprived of Single Essential Amino Acids. Experimental Cell Research, 55, 393-409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4827(69)90574-6 [89] Deberardinis, R.J. and Cheng, T. (2010) Q’s Next: The Diverse Function of Glutamine in Metabolism, Cell Biology and Cancer. Oncogene, 29, 313-324. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/onc.2009.358 [90] Zhang, J., Wang, X., Zhao, Y., Chen, B., Suo, G. and Dai, J. (2006) Neoplastic Transformation of Human Diploid Fibroblasts after Long-Term Serum Starvation. Cancer Letters, 243, 101-108.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2005.11.022 [91] Lengauer, C., Kinzler, K.W. and Vogelstein, B. (1998) Genetic Instability in Human Cancers. Nature, 396, 643-649. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/25292