Does Reactive Adaptation Exist? Using the Ecosystem Service Governance Approach to Evaluate Post-Drought Rural Food Security in Kenya
Author(s)
Grace W. Ngaruiya
Affiliation(s)
University of Hamburg, Department of Geosciences, Climate Change and Security Research Group, Hamburg, Germany.
University of Hamburg, Department of Geosciences, Climate Change and Security Research Group, Hamburg, Germany.
ABSTRACT
Controversial climate change studies purport that predicted food
insecurity and resource scarcity will intensify resource conflicts in
developing nations. This belief is based on a prevalent assumption that African
agricultural production systems are rigid and that their respective governments
lack comprehensive adaptation ability. Therefore, I investigate whether and how effective post- drought
adaptation activity is sustaining food production and livelihoods at Loitoktok
district in Kenya. This study uses the theoretical three-step ecosystem service governance approach
that analyzes both natural resources attributes and
relational data. Results confirm a substantial decline in productivity and huge
monetary losses in the agricultural sector of Loitoktok following the 2009
drought. Post-drought analysis reveals high
diversification in crops and livestock that are drought-tolerant, fast maturing
and high income generating such as camels, rabbits and dairy goats,
horticultural and fruit production that sustain food security, income and local
livelihoods. These reactive adaptation activities originate from an active public-private cooperation that promotes
knowledge exchange among Loitoktok stakeholders. This cooperation is also seen
in the efficient resource conflict resolution network. In conclusion, rural
communities seem to be efficiently adapting to changing environmental
conditions but require more financial
and technical support from the government. Unfortunately, appraisal of national
planned adaptation reveals effort-duplication that may divert much needed
adaptation funds from being invested in research projects with multiple
benefits to Kenyan food producers.
KEYWORDS
Climate Adaptation, Drought Impacts, Food Security, Knowledge Brokers, Social Networks, Kenya
Climate Adaptation, Drought Impacts, Food Security, Knowledge Brokers, Social Networks, Kenya
Cite this paper
Ngaruiya, G. (2014) Does Reactive Adaptation Exist? Using the Ecosystem Service Governance Approach to Evaluate Post-Drought Rural Food Security in Kenya. Natural Resources, 5, 392-407. doi: 10.4236/nr.2014.58037.
Ngaruiya, G. (2014) Does Reactive Adaptation Exist? Using the Ecosystem Service Governance Approach to Evaluate Post-Drought Rural Food Security in Kenya. Natural Resources, 5, 392-407. doi: 10.4236/nr.2014.58037.
References
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/AJESD.2013.058746
[1] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-Being, Vol. 5. Island Press, Washington DC. [2] Okello, M.M. and D’amour, D.E. (2008) Agricultural Expansion within Kimana Electric Fences and Implications for Natural Resource Conservation around Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Journal of Arid Environments, 72, 2179-2192.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.07.008 [3] Tubiello, F. (2008) Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation: Challenges and Opportunities in the Food Sector. Presented at the World Food Security: The Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy, Rome, Italy, 29. [4] Abdou, K., Parker, D.J., Brooks, B., Kalthoff, N. and Lebel, T. (2010) The Diurnal Cycle of Lower Boundary-Layer Wind in the West African Monsoon. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 136, 66-76.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/qj.536 [5] World Bank (2013) Turn down the Heat: Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts, and the Case for Resilience. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics, World Bank, Washington DC. [6] AMCEN (2011) Addressing Climate Change Challenges in Africa: A Practical Guide towards Sustainable Development. African Union Commission & United Nations Environment Programme Secretariat, Nairobi. [7] Burke, M.B., Miguel, E., Satyanath, S., Dykema, J.A. and Lobell, D.B. (2009) Warming Increases the Risk of Civil War in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 20670-20674.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907998106 [8] Lobell, D.B., Burke, M.B., Tebaldi, C., Mastrandrea, M.D., Falcon, W.P. and Naylor, R.L. (2008) Prioritizing Climate Change Adaptation Needs for Food Security in 2030. Science, 319, 607-610.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1152339 [9] O’Loughlin, J., Witmer, F.D., Linke, A.M., Laing, A., Gettelman, A. and Dudhia, J. (2012) Climate Variability and Conflict Risk in East Africa, 1990-2009. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 18344-18349.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1205130109 [10] Müller, C. (2013) African Lessons on Climate Change Risks for Agriculture. Annual Review of Nutrition, 33, 395-411.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071812-161121 [11] UNFCCC (2007) Climate Change: Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation in Developing Countries. UN Climate Change Secretariat. [12] IPCC, Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability: Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In: McCarthy, J.J., Canziani, O.F., Leary, N.A., Dokken, D.J. and White, K.S., Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001. [13] Government of Kenya (2010) National Climate Change Response Strategy. Government Printers, Nairobi. [14] Handmer, J.W., Dovers, S. and Downing, T.E. (1999) Societal Vulnerability to Climate Change and Variability. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 4, 267-281.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1009611621048 [15] Ngaruiya, G.W. (2014) Ecosystem Service Governance: A Synergistic Approach Developed from Key Natural Management Schemes Relevant in Rural Areas. Accepted for Publication, Ecosyst. Serv. [16] Government of Kenya (2009) Loitoktok District Development Plan. Office of the Prime Minister, Ministry of Planning National Development and Vision 2030, Nairobi. [17] Ntiati, P. (2002) Group Ranches Subdivision Study in Loitokitok division of Kajiado District, Kenya. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Working Paper 7. [18] Okello, M.M. (2005) Land Use Changes and Human-Wildlife Conflicts in the Amboseli Area, Kenya. Human Dimensions of Wildlife: An International Journal, 10, 19-28.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10871200590904851 [19] Ernstson, H., Barthel, S., Andersson, E. and Borgstrom, S.T. (2010) Scale-Crossing Brokers and Network Governance of Urban Ecosystem Services: The Case of Stockholm. Ecology and Society, 15, 28. [20] Prell, C., Reed, M., Racin, L. and Hubacek, K. (2010) Competing Structure, Competing Views: The Role of Formal and Informal Social Structures in Shaping Stakeholder Perceptions. Ecology and Society, 15, 34. [21] Hennig, M., Brandes, U., Pfeffer, J. and Mergel, I. (2012) Studying Social Networks: A Guide to Empirical Research. Campus Verlag. [22] Bodin, O. and Prell, C. (2011) Social Networks and Natural Resource Management: Uncovering the Social Fabric of Environmental Governance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511894985 [23] Lin, N. (1999) Social Networks and Status Attainment. Annual Review of Sociology, 25, 467-487.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.467 [24] Borgatti, S.P., Everett, M.G. and Freeman, L.C. (2002) UCINET Software. Analytic Technologies, Harvard. [25] Ngaruiya, G.W. and Scheffran, J. (2013) Reducing Climate Adaptation Deficits Using Revolving Fund Network Schemes in Rural Areas of Kenya: Case Study of Loitoktok District. African Journal of Economic and Sustainable Development, 2, 347-362.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/AJESD.2013.058746