Human-Carnivore Conflicts in Private Conservancy Lands of Elerai and Oltiyiani in Amboseli Area, Kenya
Affiliation(s)
The School for Field Studies, Centre for Wildlife Management Studies, Nairobi, Kenya. African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), Nairobi, Kenya.
The School for Field Studies, Centre for Wildlife Management Studies, Nairobi, Kenya. African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), Nairobi, Kenya.
ABSTRACT
Human-carnivore conflicts represent the most common negative
form of interactions between humans and wildlife. Most carnivores involved in
such conflicts are: lion, hyena, leopard and cheetah. Three strategies are
normally used in Kenya to mitigate such conflicts; consolation for lost livestock
and human life to increase tolerance to them, use of predator proof homesteads
especially among pastoralists, use flicking lights at night to discourage
approach of carnivores near homesteads, and awareness creation among communities
on the ecological role of carnivores. This study examined human-carnivore
interactions in privately owned conservancies near Amboseli National Park,
Kenya. The conservancies were found to have almost similar human and livestock
demography. However, homesteads in Elerai had more fence broken parts and
relatively higher levels of livestock predation by lion and hyena. The higher
the number of each livestock type was, the higher the specific predation to
that livestock type was, implying density dependent effects of predation by
carnivores on livestock. It seemed that the fence structure and level of
maintenance (including carnivore strategies on specializing on specific
livestock size and age consistent with optimizing their foraging strategies)
influenced predation incidences. However, the presence of adult males and
Maasai warriors (morans) in bomas did not seem to be related with the number of
livestock killed by carnivores, implying that they didn’t add vigilance as an
additional strategy to prevent livestock depredation. It is recommended that
attention be paid on maintenance of homestead and livestock fences as well as
vigilance to deter predation. We further recommend strategies to prevent
livestock predation such as, installation of chain link predator proof fences or
carnivore lighting deterrents at night because woody plants fences are
ineffective and deteriorate easily with time, and also lead to depletion of
plant resources critical to households.
Cite this paper
Okello, M. , Kiringe, J. and Warinwa, F. (2014) Human-Carnivore Conflicts in Private Conservancy Lands of Elerai and Oltiyiani in Amboseli Area, Kenya. Natural Resources, 5, 375-391. doi: 10.4236/nr.2014.58036.
Okello, M. , Kiringe, J. and Warinwa, F. (2014) Human-Carnivore Conflicts in Private Conservancy Lands of Elerai and Oltiyiani in Amboseli Area, Kenya. Natural Resources, 5, 375-391. doi: 10.4236/nr.2014.58036.
References
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.01.013 [4] Maclennan, S., Groom, R., Macdonald, D.W. and Frank, L. (2009) Evaluation of Compensation Scheme to Bring about Pastoralist Tolerance of Lions. Biological Conservation, 14, 2419-2427.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.12.003 [5] Norton-Griffiths, M. and Southey, C. (1995) The Opportunity Costs of Biodiversity Conservation in Kenya. Ecological Economics, 12, 125-139.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(94)00041-S [6] Newmark, W.D. (1994) The Conflicts Between Wildlife and Local People Living Adjacent to Protected Areas in Tanzania: Human Density as a Predictor. Conservation Biology, 8, 249-255.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3060370 [9] Okello, M.M. and Kiringe, J.W. (2004) Threats to Biodiversity and Their Implications in Protected and Adjacent Dispersal Areas of Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 12, 55-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669580408667224 [10] Hazzah, L., Mulder, M.B. and Frank, L. (2009) Lions and Warriors: Social Factors Underlying Declining African Lion Populations and the Effect of Incentive—Based Management in Kenya. Biological Conservation, 142, 2428-2437.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.06.006 [11] Gowdy, M.J. (1997) The Value of Biodiversity: Markets, Society, and Ecosystems. Land Economics, 73, 25-41.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10061549.x [16] Stuart-Hill, G. and Grossman, D. (1993) Parks, Profits and Professionalism: Lion Return to Pilanesberg. African Wildlife, 47, 267. [17] Graham, O. (1989) A Land Divided: The Impact of Ranching on a Pastoral Society. Ecologist, 19, 184-185. [18] Hackel, J.D. (1998) Community Conservation and the Future of Africa’s Wildlife. Conservation Biology, 13, 726-734.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98210.x [19] Ferraro, P.J. and Kiss, A. (2000) Direct Paymentst to Conserve Biodiversity. Science, 298, 1718-1719. [20] Okello, M.M., Seno, S.S. and Wishtemi, B.B. (2003) Maasai Community Wildlife Sanctuaries in Tsavo-Amboseli, Kenya. Parks, 13, 62-75. [21] Campbell, D.J., Gichohi, H., Mwangi, A. and Chege, L. (2000) Land Use Conflict in Kajiado District, Kenya. Land Use Policy, 17, 337-348.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(00)00038-7 [22] Mizutani, F. (1993) Home Range of Leopards and Their Impact on Livestock on Kenyan Ranches. In: Dunstone, N. and Gorman, M.L., Eds., Mammals as Predator, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 425-439. [23] Butler, J.R.A. (2000) The Economic Costs of Wildlife Predation on Livestock in Gokwe Communal Land, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology, 38, 23-30.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2028.2000.00209.x [24] Kerbis, A., Peterhans, J.C. and Gnoske, T.P. (2002) The Science of Man-Eating among Lions Panthera Leo with Reconstruction of the Natural History of the Man-Eaters of Tsavo. Journal of East African Natural History, 90, 1-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2982/0012-8317(2001)90[1:TSOMAL]2.0.CO;2 [25] Hazzah, L., Dolrenry, S., Kaplan, D. and Frank, L. (2013) The Influence of Park Access during Drought on the Attitudes towards Wildlife and Lion Killing Behavior in Maasailand, Kenya. Environmental Conservation, 40, 266-276. [26] Galaty, J.G. (1992 This Land Is Yours: Social and Economic Factors in the Privatization, Subdivision and Sale of Maasai Ranches. Nomadic Peoples, 30, 26-40. [27] Western, D. (1975) Water Availability and Its Influence on the Structure and Dynamics of a Savannah Large Mammal Community. East African Wildlife Journal, 13, 265-286.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1975.tb00139.x [28] Rudnai, J. (1979) Ecology of Lions in Nairobi National Park and the Adjoining Kitengela Conservation Unit in Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 17, 85-95.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1979.tb00460.x [29] Ntiati, P. (2002) Group Ranches Subdivision Study in Loitokitok Division of Kajiado District, Kenya. Lucid Working Paper Series, 7, 1-26. [30] Irigia, B.K. (1995) Kenya Wildlife Service Environmental Impact Assessment of the Proposed Kimana Wildlife Sanctuary. Community Wildlife Service, KWS, Nairobi, 29. [31] Gachimbi, L.N. (2002) Technical Report of Soil Survey and Sampling: Loitokitok Division, Kajiado District. LUCID Working Paper Series, 10, 1-22. [32] Okello, M.M. (2009) Contraction of Wildlife Dispersal Area and Displacement by Human Activities in Kimana Group Ranch near Amboseli N. Park. The Open Conservation Biology Journal, 3, 49-56.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874839200903010049 [33] Zar, J.H. (1999) Biostatistical Analysis. 4th Editon, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River. [34] Estes, R.D. (1997) The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. Russel Friedman Books. [35] Kiringe, J.W. and Okello, M.M. (2005) Use and Availability of Tree and Shrub Resources on Maasai Communal Rangelands near Amboseli, Kenya. African Journal of Range and Forage Science, 22, 37-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/10220110509485860 [36] Maclennan, S.D., Groom, R.J., Macdonald, D.W. and Frank, L.G. (2009) Evaluation of Compensation Scheme to Bring about Pastoralist Tolerance of Lions. Biological Conservation. [37] Ogutu, J.O. (1994) Test of a Call-In Technique for Estimating Lion (Panthera leo, Linnaeus 1758) Population Size in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. M.Phil. Thesis, Department of Wildlife Management, Moi University, Eldoret.
[1] Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) (1994) Executive Summary: Human Wildlife Conflicts in Kenya. Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi. [2] Woodroffe, R. (2000) Predators and People: Using Human Densities to Interpret Declines of Large Carnivores. Animal Conservation, 3, 165-173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2000.tb00241.x [3] Patterson, B.D., Kasiki, S.M., Selempo, E. and Kays, R.W. (2004) Livestock Predation by Lions (Panthera leo) and other Carnivores on Ranches Neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya. Biological Conservation, 119, 507-516.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.01.013 [4] Maclennan, S., Groom, R., Macdonald, D.W. and Frank, L. (2009) Evaluation of Compensation Scheme to Bring about Pastoralist Tolerance of Lions. Biological Conservation, 14, 2419-2427.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.12.003 [5] Norton-Griffiths, M. and Southey, C. (1995) The Opportunity Costs of Biodiversity Conservation in Kenya. Ecological Economics, 12, 125-139.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0921-8009(94)00041-S [6] Newmark, W.D. (1994) The Conflicts Between Wildlife and Local People Living Adjacent to Protected Areas in Tanzania: Human Density as a Predictor. Conservation Biology, 8, 249-255.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010249.x [7] Frank, L.G. (2004) Living with Lions: Carnivore Conservation and Livestock in Laikipia District, Kenya. Biological Conservation, 119, 507-516. [8] Kimani, K. and Pickard, J. (1998) Recent Trends and Implications of Group Ranch Sub-Division and Fragmentation in Kajiado District, Kenya. The Geographical Journal, 164, 202-218.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3060370 [9] Okello, M.M. and Kiringe, J.W. (2004) Threats to Biodiversity and Their Implications in Protected and Adjacent Dispersal Areas of Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 12, 55-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669580408667224 [10] Hazzah, L., Mulder, M.B. and Frank, L. (2009) Lions and Warriors: Social Factors Underlying Declining African Lion Populations and the Effect of Incentive—Based Management in Kenya. Biological Conservation, 142, 2428-2437.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.06.006 [11] Gowdy, M.J. (1997) The Value of Biodiversity: Markets, Society, and Ecosystems. Land Economics, 73, 25-41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3147075 [12] Wishitemi, B.E.L. and Okello, M.M. (2003) Application of the Protected Landscape Model in Southern Kenya. Parks, 13, 12-21. [13] Morell, V. (1993) Surrounded! Civilization Is Encroaching on Nairobi National Park (Nairobi Wild Side). International Wildlife, 27, 38-44. [14] Newmark, W.D. (1993) The Role and Designing of Wildlife Corridors and Examples From Tanzania. Ambio, 22, 500-504. [15] Newmark, W.D. (1996) Insularization of Tanzanian Parks and the Local Extinction of Large Mammals. Conservation Biology, 10, 1549-1556.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10061549.x [16] Stuart-Hill, G. and Grossman, D. (1993) Parks, Profits and Professionalism: Lion Return to Pilanesberg. African Wildlife, 47, 267. [17] Graham, O. (1989) A Land Divided: The Impact of Ranching on a Pastoral Society. Ecologist, 19, 184-185. [18] Hackel, J.D. (1998) Community Conservation and the Future of Africa’s Wildlife. Conservation Biology, 13, 726-734.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98210.x [19] Ferraro, P.J. and Kiss, A. (2000) Direct Paymentst to Conserve Biodiversity. Science, 298, 1718-1719. [20] Okello, M.M., Seno, S.S. and Wishtemi, B.B. (2003) Maasai Community Wildlife Sanctuaries in Tsavo-Amboseli, Kenya. Parks, 13, 62-75. [21] Campbell, D.J., Gichohi, H., Mwangi, A. and Chege, L. (2000) Land Use Conflict in Kajiado District, Kenya. Land Use Policy, 17, 337-348.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(00)00038-7 [22] Mizutani, F. (1993) Home Range of Leopards and Their Impact on Livestock on Kenyan Ranches. In: Dunstone, N. and Gorman, M.L., Eds., Mammals as Predator, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 425-439. [23] Butler, J.R.A. (2000) The Economic Costs of Wildlife Predation on Livestock in Gokwe Communal Land, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology, 38, 23-30.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2028.2000.00209.x [24] Kerbis, A., Peterhans, J.C. and Gnoske, T.P. (2002) The Science of Man-Eating among Lions Panthera Leo with Reconstruction of the Natural History of the Man-Eaters of Tsavo. Journal of East African Natural History, 90, 1-40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2982/0012-8317(2001)90[1:TSOMAL]2.0.CO;2 [25] Hazzah, L., Dolrenry, S., Kaplan, D. and Frank, L. (2013) The Influence of Park Access during Drought on the Attitudes towards Wildlife and Lion Killing Behavior in Maasailand, Kenya. Environmental Conservation, 40, 266-276. [26] Galaty, J.G. (1992 This Land Is Yours: Social and Economic Factors in the Privatization, Subdivision and Sale of Maasai Ranches. Nomadic Peoples, 30, 26-40. [27] Western, D. (1975) Water Availability and Its Influence on the Structure and Dynamics of a Savannah Large Mammal Community. East African Wildlife Journal, 13, 265-286.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1975.tb00139.x [28] Rudnai, J. (1979) Ecology of Lions in Nairobi National Park and the Adjoining Kitengela Conservation Unit in Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 17, 85-95.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1979.tb00460.x [29] Ntiati, P. (2002) Group Ranches Subdivision Study in Loitokitok Division of Kajiado District, Kenya. Lucid Working Paper Series, 7, 1-26. [30] Irigia, B.K. (1995) Kenya Wildlife Service Environmental Impact Assessment of the Proposed Kimana Wildlife Sanctuary. Community Wildlife Service, KWS, Nairobi, 29. [31] Gachimbi, L.N. (2002) Technical Report of Soil Survey and Sampling: Loitokitok Division, Kajiado District. LUCID Working Paper Series, 10, 1-22. [32] Okello, M.M. (2009) Contraction of Wildlife Dispersal Area and Displacement by Human Activities in Kimana Group Ranch near Amboseli N. Park. The Open Conservation Biology Journal, 3, 49-56.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874839200903010049 [33] Zar, J.H. (1999) Biostatistical Analysis. 4th Editon, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River. [34] Estes, R.D. (1997) The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. Russel Friedman Books. [35] Kiringe, J.W. and Okello, M.M. (2005) Use and Availability of Tree and Shrub Resources on Maasai Communal Rangelands near Amboseli, Kenya. African Journal of Range and Forage Science, 22, 37-46.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/10220110509485860 [36] Maclennan, S.D., Groom, R.J., Macdonald, D.W. and Frank, L.G. (2009) Evaluation of Compensation Scheme to Bring about Pastoralist Tolerance of Lions. Biological Conservation. [37] Ogutu, J.O. (1994) Test of a Call-In Technique for Estimating Lion (Panthera leo, Linnaeus 1758) Population Size in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. M.Phil. Thesis, Department of Wildlife Management, Moi University, Eldoret.