The Relationship between Self-Esteem, Sense of Mastery and Humor as Personal Resources and Crisis-Coping Strategies in Three Generations
ABSTRACT
Aim: The study’s aim is to examine the coping strategies from a perspective of intergenerational transmission. Methods: A self-report questionnaire was completed by 504 students, their parents, and their grandparents. Tools on the questionnaire assessed crisis perception as well as levels of sense of humor, sense of mastery, and self-esteem, as independent variables, and crisis-coping strategies, as the dependent variable. Results: Findings indicated that there was intergenerational transmission of the problem-focused coping strategy in general, and of the intra-personal resources of self-esteem, and sense of mastery, in particular. The major theoretical contribution of the study is in extending the concept of intergenerational transmission to include an additional realm; findings also substantiated and reinforced previous knowledge regarding the strategies for coping with stress and crises among various age groups. Conclusions: In terms of applicability, recognizing the phenomenon of intergenerational transmission provides a clinical tool that increases the possibility of coping with complex problems. In addition, it suggests the need to increase clients’ awareness of the significant effects of intergenerational transmission.
Cite this paper
Ron, P. and Rovner, M. (2014) The Relationship between Self-Esteem, Sense of Mastery and Humor as Personal Resources and Crisis-Coping Strategies in Three Generations. Advances in Aging Research, 3, 160-171. doi: 10.4236/aar.2014.32024.
Ron, P. and Rovner, M. (2014) The Relationship between Self-Esteem, Sense of Mastery and Humor as Personal Resources and Crisis-Coping Strategies in Three Generations. Advances in Aging Research, 3, 160-171. doi: 10.4236/aar.2014.32024.
References
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267 [2] Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer, New York. [3] Lazarus, R.S. (1980) Thoughts on the Relations between Cognition and Emotion. American Psychologist, 37, 1019-1024.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.9.1019 [4] Folkman, S. and Lazarus, R.S. (1980) An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.08.012 [12] Thoits, P.A. (1994) Stressors and Problem Solving: The Individual as Psychological Activist. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 143-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2137362 [13] Turner, H.A. and Turner, R.J. (2005) Under-Standing Variations in Exposure to Social Stress. Health, 9, 209-240. [14] Aspinwall, L.G. and Taylor, S.E. (1992) Modeling Cognitive Adaptation: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Impact of Individual Differences and Coping on College Adjustment and Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 989-1003.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.989 [15] Terry, D.J. (1991) Coping Resources and Situational Appraisals as Predictors of Coping. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1031-1047.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90033-8 [16] Thoits, P.A. (1999) Self, Identity, Stress, and Mental Health. In: Aneshensel, C.S. and Phelan, J.C., Eds., Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, Kluwer Academic-Plenum, New York, 345-368. [17] Michinov, N. (2005) Social Comparison, Perceived Control and Occupational Burnout. Applied Psychology, 54, 99-118.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1998.tb00679.x [22] Hagger, M.S. and Orbell, S. (2003) A Meta-Analytic Review of the Common-Sense Model of Illness Representations. Psychology and Health, 18, 141-184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/088704403100081321 [23] Anderson, C.R. (1977) Locus of Control, Coping, Behaviors and Performance in a Stress Setting: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 446-451.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/humr.2000.13.4.419 [27] Martin, R.A. (2004) Sense of Humor and Physical Health: Theoretical Issues, Recent Findings, and Future Directions. Humor, 17, 1-19.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/humr.2004.005 [28] Berk, R. (2001) The Active Ingredients in Humor: Psycho Physiological Benefits and Risks for Older Adults. Educational Gerontology, 27, 323-339.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/036012701750195021 [29] Celso, B.G., Ebener, D.J. and Burkhead, E.J. (2003) Humor Coping, Health Status, and Life Satisfaction among Older Adults in Assisted Living Facilities. Aging & Mental Health, 7, 438-445.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13607860310001594691 [30] Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1992) Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting: A Review of Studies in Nonclinical Populations. Developmental Review, 12, 76-99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(92)90004-L [31] Bandura, A. (1971) Psychological Modeling: Conflicting Theories. Aldine-Atherton, Chicago. [32] McEwen, K.E. (1994) Refining the Intergenerational Transmission Hypothesis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 350-365.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/088626094009003005 [33] Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. [34] Corvo, K. and Carpenter, E.H. (2000) Effects of Parental Substance Abuse on Current Levels of Domestic Violence: A Possible Elaboration of Intergenerational Transmission Processes. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 123-135.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007557626788 [35] Lobdell, J. and Perlman, D. 1986) The Intergenerational Transmission of Loneliness: A Study of College Females and Their Parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 589-595.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/352045 [36] Almagor, M. and Leon, G.R. (1989) Transgenerational Effects of the Concentration Camp Experience. In: Marcus, P. and Rosenberg, A., Eds., Healing Their Wounds: Psychotherapy with Holocaust Survivors and Their Families, Praeger, New York, 183-195. [37] Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1963) Vicarious Reinforcement and Imitative Learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 601-607.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0045550 [38] Bartle, S.E. and Anderson, S.A. (1991) Similarity between Parents and Adolescents Levels of Individuation. Adolescence, 26, 913-924. [39] Zeidner, M. and Ben-Zur, H. (1993) Coping with a National Crisis: The Israeli Experience with the Threat of Missile Attacks. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 209-224.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90191-5 [40] Thorson, J.A. and Powell, F.C. (1993) Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49, 13-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199301)49:1<13::AID-JCLP2270490103>3.0.CO;2-S [41] Hobfoll, S.E. and Walfisch, S. (1984) Coping with a Threat to Life: A Longitudinal Study of Self-Concept, Social Support, and Psychological Distress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 87-100.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00896930 [42] Wiseman, H., Metzl, E. and Barber, J.P. (2006) Anger, Guilt, and Intergenerational Communication of Trauma in the Interpersonal Narratives of Second Generation Holocaust Survivors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 176-184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.2.176 [43] Kellermann, N. (2001) Transmission of Holocaust Trauma—An Integrative View. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 64, 256-267. [44] Bell, Y.R., Bierer, L.M. and Schmeidler, J. (2008) Maternal, Not Paternal, PTSD Is Related to Increased Risk for PTSD in Offspring of Holocaust Survivors. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 1104-1111.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.002 [45] Bowen, M. (1978) Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. Jason Aaronson, New York. [46] Nichols, M.P. and Schwartz, R.C. (1995) Family Therapy: Concepts and Methods. 4th Edition, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. [47] Kerr, M.M. and Bowen, M. (1988) Family Evaluation. Norton, New York. [48] Kornhaber, A. (1997) Grandparenthood and the New Social Contract. Research and Aging, 1, 108-132. [49] Carter, B. and McGoldrick, M. (2005) The Expended Family Life Cycle: Individual, Family and the Social Perspectives. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. [50] Rosenheck, R. and Nathan, P. (1985) Secondary Traumatization in the Children of Vietnam Veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 36, 538-539. [51] Lev-Wiesel, R. (2007) Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma across Three Generations: A Preliminary Study. Qualitative Social Work, 6, 75-94.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1473325007074167 [52] Aldwin, C.M., Sutton, K.J., Chiara, G. and Spiro, A. (1996) Age Differences in Stress, Coping, and Appraisal: Findings from the Normative Aging Study. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 51, 179-188.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/51B.4.P179 [53] Hammen, C.M., Brennon, P.A. and Brocque, R.L. (2011) Youth Depression and Early Childrearing: Stress Generation and Intergenerational Transmission of Depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 353-363.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0023536 [54] Cross, W.E. (1998) Black Psychological Functioning and the Legacy of Slavery. In: Danieli, Y., Ed., International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma, Plenum, New York, 387-400.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-5567-1_25 [55] Zeidner, M. and Saklofske, D.H. (1996) Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping. In: Zeidner, M. and Endler, N.S., Eds., Handbook of Coping: Theory, Research and Applications, John Wiely, New York, 505-531. [56] Jarle, E. (2003) The Course of PTSD Symptoms Following Military Training Accidents and Brief Psychological Interventions. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 771-783.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00282-9 [57] Garmezy, N. (1991) Resiliency and Vulnerability to Adverse Developmental Outcomes Associated with Poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416-430.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002764291034004003 [58] Bonanno, G.A. (2005) Resilience in the Face of Potential Trauma. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 135-138.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00347.x [59] Ritter, C., Hobfoll, S.E., Lavin, J., Cameron, R. and Hulsizer, M. (2000) Stress, Psychological Resources and Depressive Symptomatology during Pregnancy in Low-Income, Inner-City Women. Health Psychology, 19, 576-585.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.576 [60] McKenry, P. and Price, S. (2005) Families Coping with Change. In: McKenry, P. and Price, S., Eds., Families and Change: Coping with Stressful Events and Transitions, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, 1-24. [61] Rotter, J.B. (1975) Some Problems and Misconceptions Related to the Construct of Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 56-67.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076301
[1] Carver, C.S., Scheier, M. and Weintraub, J.K. (1989) Assessing Coping Strategies: A Theoretically Based Approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267 [2] Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer, New York. [3] Lazarus, R.S. (1980) Thoughts on the Relations between Cognition and Emotion. American Psychologist, 37, 1019-1024.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.9.1019 [4] Folkman, S. and Lazarus, R.S. (1980) An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2136617 [5] Ben-Zur, H. (2002) Monitoring/Blunting and Social Support: Association with Coping and Affect. International Journal of Stress Management, 9, 357-377. [6] Coyne, J.C. and Downey, G. (1991) Social Factors and Psychopathology. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 401-425.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.002153 [7] Fondacaro, M.R. and Moos, R.H. (1987) Social Support and Coping: A Longitudinal Analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 653-673.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00929917 [8] Moos, R.H. and Schaefer, J.A. (1993) Coping Resources and Processes: Current Concepts and Measures. In: Goldberger, L. and Breznitz, S., Eds., Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects, 2nd Edition, The Free Press, New York, 234-257. [9] Rosenberg, M. (1965) Society and the Adolescent Self Image. Princeton University Press, Princeton. [10] Coopersmith, S. (1967) The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. Freeman, San Francisco. [11] Birndorf, S., Ryan, S., Auinger, P. and Aten, M. (2005) High Self-Esteem among Adolescents: Longitudinal Trends, Sex Differences, and Protective Factors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37, 194-201.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.08.012 [12] Thoits, P.A. (1994) Stressors and Problem Solving: The Individual as Psychological Activist. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 143-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2137362 [13] Turner, H.A. and Turner, R.J. (2005) Under-Standing Variations in Exposure to Social Stress. Health, 9, 209-240. [14] Aspinwall, L.G. and Taylor, S.E. (1992) Modeling Cognitive Adaptation: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Impact of Individual Differences and Coping on College Adjustment and Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 989-1003.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.989 [15] Terry, D.J. (1991) Coping Resources and Situational Appraisals as Predictors of Coping. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1031-1047.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90033-8 [16] Thoits, P.A. (1999) Self, Identity, Stress, and Mental Health. In: Aneshensel, C.S. and Phelan, J.C., Eds., Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, Kluwer Academic-Plenum, New York, 345-368. [17] Michinov, N. (2005) Social Comparison, Perceived Control and Occupational Burnout. Applied Psychology, 54, 99-118.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00198.x [18] Pearlin, L.I. and Schooler, C. (1978) The Structure of Coping. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 19, 2-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2136319 [19] Ben-Zur, H. (2002) Monitoring/Blunting and Social Support: Associations with Coping and Affect. International Journal of Stress Management, 9, 357-377.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1019990518144 [20] Cicirelli, V.G. (1992) Siblings as Caregivers in Middle and Old Age. In: Dwyer, J.W. and Coward, R.T., Eds., Gender, Families, and Elder Care, Sage, Newbury Park, 84-101. [21] Begley, T.M. (1998) Coping Strategies as Predictors of Employee Distress and Turnover after an Organizational Consolidation: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 71, 305-329.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1998.tb00679.x [22] Hagger, M.S. and Orbell, S. (2003) A Meta-Analytic Review of the Common-Sense Model of Illness Representations. Psychology and Health, 18, 141-184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/088704403100081321 [23] Anderson, C.R. (1977) Locus of Control, Coping, Behaviors and Performance in a Stress Setting: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 446-451.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.62.4.446 [24] Lazarus, R.S. (1966) Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. McGraw-Hill, New York. [25] Betha, L.S. (2001) The Function of Humor within the Lives of Older Adults. Communication Quarterly, 49, 49-56. [26] Talbot, L.A. and Lumden, D.B. (2000) On the Association between Humor and Burnout. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 13, 419-428.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/humr.2000.13.4.419 [27] Martin, R.A. (2004) Sense of Humor and Physical Health: Theoretical Issues, Recent Findings, and Future Directions. Humor, 17, 1-19.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/humr.2004.005 [28] Berk, R. (2001) The Active Ingredients in Humor: Psycho Physiological Benefits and Risks for Older Adults. Educational Gerontology, 27, 323-339.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/036012701750195021 [29] Celso, B.G., Ebener, D.J. and Burkhead, E.J. (2003) Humor Coping, Health Status, and Life Satisfaction among Older Adults in Assisted Living Facilities. Aging & Mental Health, 7, 438-445.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13607860310001594691 [30] Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1992) Intergenerational Transmission of Parenting: A Review of Studies in Nonclinical Populations. Developmental Review, 12, 76-99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(92)90004-L [31] Bandura, A. (1971) Psychological Modeling: Conflicting Theories. Aldine-Atherton, Chicago. [32] McEwen, K.E. (1994) Refining the Intergenerational Transmission Hypothesis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 350-365.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/088626094009003005 [33] Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. [34] Corvo, K. and Carpenter, E.H. (2000) Effects of Parental Substance Abuse on Current Levels of Domestic Violence: A Possible Elaboration of Intergenerational Transmission Processes. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 123-135.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007557626788 [35] Lobdell, J. and Perlman, D. 1986) The Intergenerational Transmission of Loneliness: A Study of College Females and Their Parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 589-595.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/352045 [36] Almagor, M. and Leon, G.R. (1989) Transgenerational Effects of the Concentration Camp Experience. In: Marcus, P. and Rosenberg, A., Eds., Healing Their Wounds: Psychotherapy with Holocaust Survivors and Their Families, Praeger, New York, 183-195. [37] Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1963) Vicarious Reinforcement and Imitative Learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 601-607.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0045550 [38] Bartle, S.E. and Anderson, S.A. (1991) Similarity between Parents and Adolescents Levels of Individuation. Adolescence, 26, 913-924. [39] Zeidner, M. and Ben-Zur, H. (1993) Coping with a National Crisis: The Israeli Experience with the Threat of Missile Attacks. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 209-224.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90191-5 [40] Thorson, J.A. and Powell, F.C. (1993) Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49, 13-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199301)49:1<13::AID-JCLP2270490103>3.0.CO;2-S [41] Hobfoll, S.E. and Walfisch, S. (1984) Coping with a Threat to Life: A Longitudinal Study of Self-Concept, Social Support, and Psychological Distress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 87-100.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00896930 [42] Wiseman, H., Metzl, E. and Barber, J.P. (2006) Anger, Guilt, and Intergenerational Communication of Trauma in the Interpersonal Narratives of Second Generation Holocaust Survivors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 176-184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.2.176 [43] Kellermann, N. (2001) Transmission of Holocaust Trauma—An Integrative View. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 64, 256-267. [44] Bell, Y.R., Bierer, L.M. and Schmeidler, J. (2008) Maternal, Not Paternal, PTSD Is Related to Increased Risk for PTSD in Offspring of Holocaust Survivors. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 1104-1111.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.002 [45] Bowen, M. (1978) Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. Jason Aaronson, New York. [46] Nichols, M.P. and Schwartz, R.C. (1995) Family Therapy: Concepts and Methods. 4th Edition, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. [47] Kerr, M.M. and Bowen, M. (1988) Family Evaluation. Norton, New York. [48] Kornhaber, A. (1997) Grandparenthood and the New Social Contract. Research and Aging, 1, 108-132. [49] Carter, B. and McGoldrick, M. (2005) The Expended Family Life Cycle: Individual, Family and the Social Perspectives. Allyn and Bacon, Boston. [50] Rosenheck, R. and Nathan, P. (1985) Secondary Traumatization in the Children of Vietnam Veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 36, 538-539. [51] Lev-Wiesel, R. (2007) Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma across Three Generations: A Preliminary Study. Qualitative Social Work, 6, 75-94.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1473325007074167 [52] Aldwin, C.M., Sutton, K.J., Chiara, G. and Spiro, A. (1996) Age Differences in Stress, Coping, and Appraisal: Findings from the Normative Aging Study. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 51, 179-188.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/51B.4.P179 [53] Hammen, C.M., Brennon, P.A. and Brocque, R.L. (2011) Youth Depression and Early Childrearing: Stress Generation and Intergenerational Transmission of Depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 353-363.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0023536 [54] Cross, W.E. (1998) Black Psychological Functioning and the Legacy of Slavery. In: Danieli, Y., Ed., International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma, Plenum, New York, 387-400.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-5567-1_25 [55] Zeidner, M. and Saklofske, D.H. (1996) Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping. In: Zeidner, M. and Endler, N.S., Eds., Handbook of Coping: Theory, Research and Applications, John Wiely, New York, 505-531. [56] Jarle, E. (2003) The Course of PTSD Symptoms Following Military Training Accidents and Brief Psychological Interventions. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 771-783.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00282-9 [57] Garmezy, N. (1991) Resiliency and Vulnerability to Adverse Developmental Outcomes Associated with Poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416-430.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002764291034004003 [58] Bonanno, G.A. (2005) Resilience in the Face of Potential Trauma. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 135-138.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00347.x [59] Ritter, C., Hobfoll, S.E., Lavin, J., Cameron, R. and Hulsizer, M. (2000) Stress, Psychological Resources and Depressive Symptomatology during Pregnancy in Low-Income, Inner-City Women. Health Psychology, 19, 576-585.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.576 [60] McKenry, P. and Price, S. (2005) Families Coping with Change. In: McKenry, P. and Price, S., Eds., Families and Change: Coping with Stressful Events and Transitions, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, 1-24. [61] Rotter, J.B. (1975) Some Problems and Misconceptions Related to the Construct of Internal versus External Control of Reinforcement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 56-67.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076301