Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae): Ethnobotany, Pharmacology and Phytochemistry
Affiliation(s)
Laboratory of Environmental and Applied Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon. School of Science and Technology, Chemistry Division, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy.
Laboratory of Environmental and Applied Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon. School of Science and Technology, Chemistry Division, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy.
ABSTRACT
In the present paper the isolation and characterization of seven major glycolipid classes (stigmasterol, acylated stigmasteryl glucoside, stigmasteryl glucoside, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol, digalactosyldiacylglycerol, cerebroside and glucocerebroside) from Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae Family) are reported after an attempt has been made to congregate the traditional and pharmacological studies done on this important medicinal plant. Drymaria cordata is a weak spreading herb found widely dispersed in damp places all over the tropics of Africa, Asia and the Americas. There are many reports on its folk and traditional uses that include snake bite, skin diseases, peptic ulcer, headaches or nephritis, female infertility, sleeping disorders, convulsions, and febrile conditions in children. The plant has been examined on the basis of scientific in vitro and in vivo evaluations possessing the major pharmacological activities that include analgesic activity, antitussive activity, anxiolytic activity, antipyretic activity, antinociceptive activity, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities. The information summarized here is intended to serve as a reference tool for practitioners in the fields of ethnopharmacology, natural product chemistry and drug discovery related research.
In the present paper the isolation and characterization of seven major glycolipid classes (stigmasterol, acylated stigmasteryl glucoside, stigmasteryl glucoside, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol, digalactosyldiacylglycerol, cerebroside and glucocerebroside) from Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae Family) are reported after an attempt has been made to congregate the traditional and pharmacological studies done on this important medicinal plant. Drymaria cordata is a weak spreading herb found widely dispersed in damp places all over the tropics of Africa, Asia and the Americas. There are many reports on its folk and traditional uses that include snake bite, skin diseases, peptic ulcer, headaches or nephritis, female infertility, sleeping disorders, convulsions, and febrile conditions in children. The plant has been examined on the basis of scientific in vitro and in vivo evaluations possessing the major pharmacological activities that include analgesic activity, antitussive activity, anxiolytic activity, antipyretic activity, antinociceptive activity, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities. The information summarized here is intended to serve as a reference tool for practitioners in the fields of ethnopharmacology, natural product chemistry and drug discovery related research.
KEYWORDS
Drymaria cordata; Caryophyllaceae; Stigmasteryl Glucoside; Glyceroglycolipid; Sphingoglycolipid
Drymaria cordata; Caryophyllaceae; Stigmasteryl Glucoside; Glyceroglycolipid; Sphingoglycolipid
Cite this paper
Nono, N. , Nzowa, K. , Barboni, L. and Tapondjou, A. (2014) Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae): Ethnobotany, Pharmacology and Phytochemistry. Advances in Biological Chemistry, 4, 160-167. doi: 10.4236/abc.2014.42020.
Nono, N. , Nzowa, K. , Barboni, L. and Tapondjou, A. (2014) Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae): Ethnobotany, Pharmacology and Phytochemistry. Advances in Biological Chemistry, 4, 160-167. doi: 10.4236/abc.2014.42020.
References
[1] Ramashankar and Rawat, M.S. (2008) Ethnobotanical Observations of Drymaria cordata Willd. Ex Roem & Schult. (Caryophyllaceae). Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research, 24, 22-24. [2] Burkill, H.M. (1985) The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. 2nd Edition, Vol. 1. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 343. [3] Rao, R.R. (1981) Ethnobotany of Meghalaya: Medicinal Plants Used by Khasi and Garo Tribes. Economic Botany, 35, 4-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02859208 [4] Asolkar, L.V., Kakkar, K.K. and Chakre, O.J. (1992) Second Supplement to Glossary of lndian Medicinal Plants, Publication and Information Directoratem, C.S.I.R., New Delhi, India, 283. [5] Noumi, E. and Dibakto, T.W. (2000) Medicinal Plants Used for Peptic Ulcer in the Bangangté Region, Western Cameroon. Fitoterapia, 71, 406-412.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(00)00144-1 [6] Telefo, P.B., Lienou, L.L., Yemele, M.D., Lemfack, M.C., Mouokeu, C., Goka, C.S., Tagne S.R. and Moundipa F.P. (2011) Ethnopharmacological Survey of Plants Used for the Treatment of Female Infertility in Baham, Cameroon. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 136, 178-187.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.036 [7] Adeyemi, O.O., Akindele, A.J. and Ndubuisi, N. (2008) Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Drymaria cordata Extract. Journal of Natural Remedies, 8, 93-100. [8] Saklani, A. and Jain, S.K. (1994) In Cross Cultural Ethnobotany of North East India. Deep Publisher, India. [9] Mukherjee, P.K., Mukerjee, K., Bhattacharya, S., Pal, M. and Saha, B.P. (1998) Studies on the Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Drymaria cordata Willd. Natural Product Sciences, 4, 91-94. [10] Barua, C.C., Barua, A.G., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B. and Borah, P. (2010) Studies on the Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Drymaria cordata Leaf Extract. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 80, 1268-1270. [11] Mukherjee, P.K., Saha, K., Bhattacharya, S., Giri, S.N., Pal, M. and Saha, B.P. (1997) Studies on Antitussive Activity of Drymaria cordata Willd. (Caryophyllaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 56, 77-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(97)01512-2 [12] Mukherjee, P.K., Bhattacharya, S., Saha, K., Giri, S.N., Pal, M. and Saha, B.P. (1998) Antibacterial Evaluation of Drymaria cordata Willd (Fam. Caryophyllaceae) Extract. Phytotherapy Research, 11, 249-250.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(199705)11:3<249::AID-PTR69>3.0.CO;2-W [13] Sowemimo, A., Van de Venter, M., Baatjies, L. and Koekemoer, T. (2009) Cytotoxic Activity of Selected Nigerian Plants. African Journal of Traditional Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 6, 526-528. [14] Barua, C.C., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B., Barua, A.G., Borah, P. and Lahkar, M. (2009) Anxiolytic Activity of Hydroe-thanolic Extract of Drymaria cordata Willd. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 47, 969-973. [15] Akindele, A.J., Ibe, I.F. and Adeyemi, O.O. (2012) Analgesic and Antipyretic Activities of Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae) Extract. African Journal of Traditional Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 9, 25-35. [16] Barua, C.C., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B., Barua, A.G., Borah, P. and Lahkar, M. (2011) Analgesic and Anti-Nociceptive Activity of Hydroethanolic Extract of Drymaria cordata Willd. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 43, 121-125.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0253-7613.77337 [17] Barua, C.C., Pal, S.K., Barua, A.G., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B., Bora, R.S. and Lahon, L.C. (2009) Analgesic Activity of Methanolic Extract of Drymaria cordata Willd (Caryophyllaceae). Pharmacologyonline, 2, 470-476. [18] Hsieh, P.-W., Chang, F.-R., Lee, K.-H., Hwang, T.-L., Chang, S.-M. and Wu, Y.-C. (2004) A New Anti-HIV Alkaloid, Drymaritin, and a New C-Glycoside Flavonoid, Diandraflavone, from Drymaria diandra. Journal of Natural Products, 67, 1175-1177.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np0400196 [19] Hsieh, P.-W., Chang, F.-R., Yen, H.-F. and Wu, Y.-C. (2003) Anemonin and Two Norsesquiterpenes from Drymaria diandra. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 31, 541-543.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-1978(02)00182-5 [20] Venkatesan, S., Sankar, V. and Sankar, A.S.K. (2003) Preliminary Phytochemical Studies on Leaves of Drymaria cordata Willd. Ancient Science of Life, 23, 16-21. [21] Koduru, S., Grierson, D.S., van de Venter, M. and Afolayan, A.J. (2007) Anticancer Activity of Steroid Alkaloids Isolated from Solanum aculeastrum. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45, 613-618.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13880200701538690 [22] Mossman, T. (1983) Rapid Colorimetric Assay for Cellular Growth and Survivals: Application to Proliferation and Cytotoxicity Assays. Journal of Immunology Methods, 65, 55-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1759(83)90303-4 [23] Zhao, H. and Zhao, S. (1992) Characterization of Acylated Glycosides from Euryale ferox by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Phytochemical Analysis, 3, 38-41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pca.2800030107 [24] Mee, J.J., Sam, S.K., Hyun, A.J., Goon, J.K. and Jae, S.C. (2004) Isolation of Flavonoids and a Cerebroside from the Stem Bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Archives of Pharmacal Research, 27, 593-599.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02980155 [25] Voutquenne, L., Lavaud, C., Massiot, G., Sevenet, T. and Hadi, H.A. (1999) Cytotoxic Polyisoprenes and Glycosides of Long-Chain Fatty Alcohols from Dimocarpus fumatus. Phytochemistry, 50, 63-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00483-X [26] Yamauchi, R., Aizawa, K., Inakuma, T. and Kato, K. (2001) Analysis of Molecular Species of Glycolipids in Fruit Pastes of Red Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 49, 622-627.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf001192k [27] Sugawara, T. And Miyazawa, T. (1999) Separation and Determination of Glycolipids from Edible Plant Sources by Highperformance Liquid Chromatography and Evaporative Light-Scattering Detection. Lipids, 34, 1231-1237.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11745-999-0476-3 [28] Simon, J.C., Joan, M.B., Arnt, I.V. and Kalavelil, M.K. (1986) Factors Affecting Surface Expression of Glycolipids: Influence of Lipid Environment and Ceramide Composition on Antibody Recognition of Cerebroside Sulfate in Liposomes. American Chemical Society, 25, 7488-7494. [29] Hannun, Y.A. and Luberto, C. (2000) Ceramide in the Eukaryotic Stress Response. Trends in Cell Biology, 10, 73-80. [30] Hannun, Y.A. and Obeid, L.M. (2008) Principles of Bioactive Lipid Signalling: Lessons from Sphingolipids. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 9, 139-150.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm2329 [31] Yang, J., Sun, Y., Yu, S. and Duerksen-Hughes, P.J. (2004) Ceramide and Other Sphingolipids in Cellular Responses. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics, 40, 323-350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1385/CBB:40:3:323 [32] Okazaki, T., Bell, R.M. and Hannun, Y.A. (1989) Sphingomyelin Turnover Induced by Vitamin D3 in HL-60 Cells, Role in Cell Differentiation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 264, 19076-19080. [33] Adam, D., Heinrich, M., Kabelitz, D. And Schutze, S. (2002) Ceramide: Does It Matter for T Cells? Trends in Immunology, 23, 1-4.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1471-4906(01)02091-9 [34] Venable, M.E., Lee, J.Y., Smyth, M.J., Bielawska, A. and Obeid, L.M. (1995) Role of Ceramide in Cellular Senescence. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270, 30701-30708.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.270.51.30701 [35] Hetz, C.A., Hunn, M., Rojas, P., Torres, V., Leyton, L. and Quest, A.F. (2002) Caspase-Dependent Initiation of Apoptosis and Necrosis by the Fas Receptor in Lymphoid Cells: Onset of Necrosis Is Associated with Delayed Ceramide Increase. Journal of Cell Science, 115, 4671-4683.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.00153 [36] Cheng, S.-Y., Wen, Z.-H., Chiou, S.-F., Tsai, C.-W., Wang, S.-K., Hsu, C.-H., Dai, C.-F., Chiang, M.Y., Wang, W.-H. and Duh, C.-Y. (2009) Ceramide and Cerebrosides from the Octocoral Sarcophyton ehrenbergi. Journal of Natural Products, 72, 465-468.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np800362g [37] Francesca, C., Jelena, Z., Gioacchino, F., Giuditta, S. and Elena, B. (2003) New Cerebroside from Euphorbia peplis L.: Antimicrobial Activity Evaluation. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 13, 4345-4350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2003.09.044 [38] Githinji, C.G., Mbugua, P.M., Kanui, T.I. and Kariuki, D.K. (2012) Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of 9-Hexacosene and Stigmasterol Isolated from Mondia whytei. Phytopharmacology, 2, 212-223. [39] Larkins, N. and Wynn, S. (2004) Pharmacognosy: Phytomedicines and Their Mechanisms. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 34, 291-327.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2003.09.006 [40] Perry, N.S.L., Chloe, B., Perry, E.K. and Clive, B. (2003) Salvia for Dementia Therapy: Review of Pharmacological Activity and Pilot Tolerability Clinical Trial. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 75, 651-659.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(03)00108-4 [41] Izzo, A.A. and Capasso, F. (2007) Herbal Medicines to Treat Alzheimer’s Disease. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 28, 47-48.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2006.12.001
[1] Ramashankar and Rawat, M.S. (2008) Ethnobotanical Observations of Drymaria cordata Willd. Ex Roem & Schult. (Caryophyllaceae). Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research, 24, 22-24. [2] Burkill, H.M. (1985) The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. 2nd Edition, Vol. 1. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 343. [3] Rao, R.R. (1981) Ethnobotany of Meghalaya: Medicinal Plants Used by Khasi and Garo Tribes. Economic Botany, 35, 4-9.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02859208 [4] Asolkar, L.V., Kakkar, K.K. and Chakre, O.J. (1992) Second Supplement to Glossary of lndian Medicinal Plants, Publication and Information Directoratem, C.S.I.R., New Delhi, India, 283. [5] Noumi, E. and Dibakto, T.W. (2000) Medicinal Plants Used for Peptic Ulcer in the Bangangté Region, Western Cameroon. Fitoterapia, 71, 406-412.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(00)00144-1 [6] Telefo, P.B., Lienou, L.L., Yemele, M.D., Lemfack, M.C., Mouokeu, C., Goka, C.S., Tagne S.R. and Moundipa F.P. (2011) Ethnopharmacological Survey of Plants Used for the Treatment of Female Infertility in Baham, Cameroon. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 136, 178-187.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.036 [7] Adeyemi, O.O., Akindele, A.J. and Ndubuisi, N. (2008) Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Drymaria cordata Extract. Journal of Natural Remedies, 8, 93-100. [8] Saklani, A. and Jain, S.K. (1994) In Cross Cultural Ethnobotany of North East India. Deep Publisher, India. [9] Mukherjee, P.K., Mukerjee, K., Bhattacharya, S., Pal, M. and Saha, B.P. (1998) Studies on the Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Drymaria cordata Willd. Natural Product Sciences, 4, 91-94. [10] Barua, C.C., Barua, A.G., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B. and Borah, P. (2010) Studies on the Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Drymaria cordata Leaf Extract. The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 80, 1268-1270. [11] Mukherjee, P.K., Saha, K., Bhattacharya, S., Giri, S.N., Pal, M. and Saha, B.P. (1997) Studies on Antitussive Activity of Drymaria cordata Willd. (Caryophyllaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 56, 77-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(97)01512-2 [12] Mukherjee, P.K., Bhattacharya, S., Saha, K., Giri, S.N., Pal, M. and Saha, B.P. (1998) Antibacterial Evaluation of Drymaria cordata Willd (Fam. Caryophyllaceae) Extract. Phytotherapy Research, 11, 249-250.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1573(199705)11:3<249::AID-PTR69>3.0.CO;2-W [13] Sowemimo, A., Van de Venter, M., Baatjies, L. and Koekemoer, T. (2009) Cytotoxic Activity of Selected Nigerian Plants. African Journal of Traditional Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 6, 526-528. [14] Barua, C.C., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B., Barua, A.G., Borah, P. and Lahkar, M. (2009) Anxiolytic Activity of Hydroe-thanolic Extract of Drymaria cordata Willd. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 47, 969-973. [15] Akindele, A.J., Ibe, I.F. and Adeyemi, O.O. (2012) Analgesic and Antipyretic Activities of Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae) Extract. African Journal of Traditional Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 9, 25-35. [16] Barua, C.C., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B., Barua, A.G., Borah, P. and Lahkar, M. (2011) Analgesic and Anti-Nociceptive Activity of Hydroethanolic Extract of Drymaria cordata Willd. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 43, 121-125.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0253-7613.77337 [17] Barua, C.C., Pal, S.K., Barua, A.G., Roy, J.D., Buragohain, B., Bora, R.S. and Lahon, L.C. (2009) Analgesic Activity of Methanolic Extract of Drymaria cordata Willd (Caryophyllaceae). Pharmacologyonline, 2, 470-476. [18] Hsieh, P.-W., Chang, F.-R., Lee, K.-H., Hwang, T.-L., Chang, S.-M. and Wu, Y.-C. (2004) A New Anti-HIV Alkaloid, Drymaritin, and a New C-Glycoside Flavonoid, Diandraflavone, from Drymaria diandra. Journal of Natural Products, 67, 1175-1177.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np0400196 [19] Hsieh, P.-W., Chang, F.-R., Yen, H.-F. and Wu, Y.-C. (2003) Anemonin and Two Norsesquiterpenes from Drymaria diandra. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 31, 541-543.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-1978(02)00182-5 [20] Venkatesan, S., Sankar, V. and Sankar, A.S.K. (2003) Preliminary Phytochemical Studies on Leaves of Drymaria cordata Willd. Ancient Science of Life, 23, 16-21. [21] Koduru, S., Grierson, D.S., van de Venter, M. and Afolayan, A.J. (2007) Anticancer Activity of Steroid Alkaloids Isolated from Solanum aculeastrum. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45, 613-618.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13880200701538690 [22] Mossman, T. (1983) Rapid Colorimetric Assay for Cellular Growth and Survivals: Application to Proliferation and Cytotoxicity Assays. Journal of Immunology Methods, 65, 55-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1759(83)90303-4 [23] Zhao, H. and Zhao, S. (1992) Characterization of Acylated Glycosides from Euryale ferox by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Phytochemical Analysis, 3, 38-41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pca.2800030107 [24] Mee, J.J., Sam, S.K., Hyun, A.J., Goon, J.K. and Jae, S.C. (2004) Isolation of Flavonoids and a Cerebroside from the Stem Bark of Albizzia julibrissin. Archives of Pharmacal Research, 27, 593-599.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02980155 [25] Voutquenne, L., Lavaud, C., Massiot, G., Sevenet, T. and Hadi, H.A. (1999) Cytotoxic Polyisoprenes and Glycosides of Long-Chain Fatty Alcohols from Dimocarpus fumatus. Phytochemistry, 50, 63-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(98)00483-X [26] Yamauchi, R., Aizawa, K., Inakuma, T. and Kato, K. (2001) Analysis of Molecular Species of Glycolipids in Fruit Pastes of Red Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 49, 622-627.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf001192k [27] Sugawara, T. And Miyazawa, T. (1999) Separation and Determination of Glycolipids from Edible Plant Sources by Highperformance Liquid Chromatography and Evaporative Light-Scattering Detection. Lipids, 34, 1231-1237.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11745-999-0476-3 [28] Simon, J.C., Joan, M.B., Arnt, I.V. and Kalavelil, M.K. (1986) Factors Affecting Surface Expression of Glycolipids: Influence of Lipid Environment and Ceramide Composition on Antibody Recognition of Cerebroside Sulfate in Liposomes. American Chemical Society, 25, 7488-7494. [29] Hannun, Y.A. and Luberto, C. (2000) Ceramide in the Eukaryotic Stress Response. Trends in Cell Biology, 10, 73-80. [30] Hannun, Y.A. and Obeid, L.M. (2008) Principles of Bioactive Lipid Signalling: Lessons from Sphingolipids. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 9, 139-150.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm2329 [31] Yang, J., Sun, Y., Yu, S. and Duerksen-Hughes, P.J. (2004) Ceramide and Other Sphingolipids in Cellular Responses. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics, 40, 323-350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1385/CBB:40:3:323 [32] Okazaki, T., Bell, R.M. and Hannun, Y.A. (1989) Sphingomyelin Turnover Induced by Vitamin D3 in HL-60 Cells, Role in Cell Differentiation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 264, 19076-19080. [33] Adam, D., Heinrich, M., Kabelitz, D. And Schutze, S. (2002) Ceramide: Does It Matter for T Cells? Trends in Immunology, 23, 1-4.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1471-4906(01)02091-9 [34] Venable, M.E., Lee, J.Y., Smyth, M.J., Bielawska, A. and Obeid, L.M. (1995) Role of Ceramide in Cellular Senescence. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270, 30701-30708.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.270.51.30701 [35] Hetz, C.A., Hunn, M., Rojas, P., Torres, V., Leyton, L. and Quest, A.F. (2002) Caspase-Dependent Initiation of Apoptosis and Necrosis by the Fas Receptor in Lymphoid Cells: Onset of Necrosis Is Associated with Delayed Ceramide Increase. Journal of Cell Science, 115, 4671-4683.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.00153 [36] Cheng, S.-Y., Wen, Z.-H., Chiou, S.-F., Tsai, C.-W., Wang, S.-K., Hsu, C.-H., Dai, C.-F., Chiang, M.Y., Wang, W.-H. and Duh, C.-Y. (2009) Ceramide and Cerebrosides from the Octocoral Sarcophyton ehrenbergi. Journal of Natural Products, 72, 465-468.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/np800362g [37] Francesca, C., Jelena, Z., Gioacchino, F., Giuditta, S. and Elena, B. (2003) New Cerebroside from Euphorbia peplis L.: Antimicrobial Activity Evaluation. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters, 13, 4345-4350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2003.09.044 [38] Githinji, C.G., Mbugua, P.M., Kanui, T.I. and Kariuki, D.K. (2012) Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of 9-Hexacosene and Stigmasterol Isolated from Mondia whytei. Phytopharmacology, 2, 212-223. [39] Larkins, N. and Wynn, S. (2004) Pharmacognosy: Phytomedicines and Their Mechanisms. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 34, 291-327.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2003.09.006 [40] Perry, N.S.L., Chloe, B., Perry, E.K. and Clive, B. (2003) Salvia for Dementia Therapy: Review of Pharmacological Activity and Pilot Tolerability Clinical Trial. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 75, 651-659.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(03)00108-4 [41] Izzo, A.A. and Capasso, F. (2007) Herbal Medicines to Treat Alzheimer’s Disease. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 28, 47-48.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2006.12.001