The Contributions of Attachment and Caregiving Orientations to Living a Meaningful Life
Affiliation(s)
Department of Behavioral Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel. Ruppin College, Emek Hefer, Israel. University of California, Davis, USA.
Department of Behavioral Sciences, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel. Ruppin College, Emek Hefer, Israel. University of California, Davis, USA.
ABSTRACT
This study adopted Bowlby’s (1982) behavioral systems perspective on meaning in life by focusing on two behavioural systems discussed by Bowlby: attachment and caregiving. Three hypotheses were formulated: 1) attachment orientations will predict meaning in life; 2) caregiving orientations will predict meaning in life; 3) attachment will moderate the associations between caregiving and sense of meaning in life. Three hundred thirteen adults completed self-report scales measuring attachment, caregiving, and two aspects of meaning in life (presence of meaning and searching for meaning). Results indicated that attachment insecurities (anxiety and avoidance), caregiving deactivation, and the interaction between attachment anxiety and caregiving deactivation contributed uniquely to the prediction of meaning in life. In addition, religiosity contributed significantly to the presence of meaning. Finally, attachment anxiety and caregiving deactivation predicted searching for meaning. The study shows that a behavioral systems perspective can contribute to the literature on meaning in life.
Cite this paper
Reizer, A. , Dahan, D. & Shaver, P. (2013). The Contributions of Attachment and Caregiving Orientations to Living a Meaningful Life. Psychology, 4, 1039-1045. doi: 10.4236/psych.2013.412151.
Reizer, A. , Dahan, D. & Shaver, P. (2013). The Contributions of Attachment and Caregiving Orientations to Living a Meaningful Life. Psychology, 4, 1039-1045. doi: 10.4236/psych.2013.412151.
References
[1] Bruce, V., Young, A., Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. [2] Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. [3] Berant, E., Mikulincer, M., & Florian, V. (2001). Attachment style and mental health: A 1-year follow-up study of mothers of infants with congenital heart disease. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 956-968.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167201278004 [4] Bodner, E., Bergman, Y. S., & Cohen-Fridel, S. (2013). Do attachment styles affect the presence and search for meaning in life? Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 1-19. [5] Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. [6] Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46-76). New York: Guilford Press. [7] Collins, N. L., & Ford, M. B. (2010).Responding to the needs of others: The caregiving behavioural system in intimate relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 235-244.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407509360907 [8] Crumbaugh, J. C. (1968). Cross-validation of a purpose-in-life test based on Frankl’s concepts. Journal of Individual Psychology, 24, 74-81. [9] Davila, J., & Sargent, E. (2003). The meaning of life (events) predicts change in attachment security. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1383-1395.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167203256374 [10] Dyson, J., Cobbs, M., & Forman, D. (1997). The meaning of spirituality: A literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26, 1183-1188. [11] Debats, D. L. (1998). Measurement of personal meaning: The psychometric properties of the Life Regard Index. In P.T.P. Wong & P.S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning (pp. 237-260). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [12] Emmons, R. A. (2003). Personal goals, life meaning, and virtue: Wellsprings of a positive life. In C. L. M. Keyes, & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived (pp. 105-128). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10594-005 [13] Erikson, E. H. (1950/1993). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. [14] Farran, C. J., Miller, B. H., Kaufman, J. E., Donner, E., & Dogg, L. (1999).Finding meaning through caregiving: Development of an instrument for family caregivers of persons with Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 1107-1125.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199909)55:9%3c%3e1.0.CO;2-F/issuetoc
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199909)55:9<1107::AID-JCLP8>3.0.CO;2-V [15] Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Washington Square Press. [16] Haley, W. E., LaMonde, L. A., Han, B., Burton, A. M., & Schonwetter, R. (2003). Predictors of depression and life satisfaction among spousal caregivers in hospice: Application of a stress process model. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 6, 215-224.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/109662103764978461 [17] Hansen, T. (2012). Parenthood and happiness: A review of folk theories versus empirical evidence. Social Indicators Research, 108, 29-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9865-y [18] Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511 [19] Impett, E. A., Gable, S., & Peplau, L. A. (2005). Giving up and giving in: The costs and benefits of daily sacrifice in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 327-344.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.327 [20] Kashdan, T. B., & Steger, M. F. (2007). Curiosity and pathways to well-being and meaning in life: Traits, states, and everyday behaviours. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 159-173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-007-9068-7 [21] Kim, Y., Carver, C. S., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T. (2008).Adult attachment and psychological well-being in cancer caregivers. The mediational role of spouses’ motives for caregiving. Health Psychology, 27, 144-154.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.2(Suppl.).S144 [22] Kogan, A., Impett, E. A., Oveis, C., Hui, B., Gordon, A., & Keltner, D. (2010). When giving feels good: The intrinsic benefits of sacrifice in romantic relationships for the communally motivated. Psychological Science, 21, 1918-1924.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797610388815 [23] Kunce, L. J., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). An attachment-theoretical approach to caregiving in romantic relationships. In K. Bartholomew, & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 5, pp. 205-237). London: Kingsley. [24] Magai, C., Hunziker, J., Mesias, W., & Culver, L. C. (2000). Adult attachment styles and emotional biases. International Journal of Behavioural development, 24, 301-309. [25] Marris, P. (1996). Attachment in private and public life. New York: Routledge. [26] Maslow, A. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking. [27] Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2005). Mental representations of attachment security: Theoretical foundation for a positive social psychology. In M. W. Baldwin (Ed.), Interpersonal cognition (pp. 233-266). New York: Guilford Press. [28] Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press. [29] Peterson, C., Park , N., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Orientations to happiness and life satisfaction: The full versus the empty life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 25-41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-004-1278-z [30] Reker, G. T. (2005). Meaning in life of young, middle-aged, and older adults: Factorial validity, age, and gender invariance of the Personal Meaning Index (PMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 71-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.03.010 [31] Reker, G. T., Peacock, E. J., & Wong, P. T. P. (1987). Meaning and purpose in life and well-being: A life span perspective. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 44-49.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronj/42.1.44 [32] Ronen, S., & Mikulincer, M. (2009). Attachment orientations and job burnout: The mediating roles of team cohesion and organizational fairness. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26, 549-567.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407509347930 [33] Schnell, T. (2009). The Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe): Relations to demographics and well-being. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 483-499.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760903271074 [34] Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfilment. New York: Free Press. [35] Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2002). Attachment-related psychodynamics. Attachment and Human Development, 4, 133-161.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616730210154171 [36] Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2012). An attachment perspective on coping with existential concerns. In P. R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer (Eds.), Meaning, mortality, and choice: The social psychology of existential concerns (pp. 291-307). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/13748-016 [37] Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., & Shemesh-Iron, M. (2009). A behavioural systems perspective on prosocial behaviour. In M. Mikulincer, & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behaviour: The better angels of our nature (pp. 73-92). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. [38] Steger, M. F. (2009). Meaning in life. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 679-687). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [39] Steger, M. F. (2012). Experiencing meaning in life: Optimal functioning at the nexus of well being, psychopathology and spirituality. In P. T. P. Wong, & P. S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning (2nd ed., pp. 165-184). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [40] Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 53, 30-93.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80 [41] Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., Sullivan, B. A., & Lorentz, D. (2008). Understanding the search for meaning in life: Personality, cognitive style, and the dynamic between seeking and experiencing meaning. Journal of Personality, 76, 199-228.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00484.x [42] Stewart, L. (2011). Weaving the fabric of attachment. International Journal of Integrative Psychotherapy, 2, 1-9. [43] Stroope, S., Draper, S., & Whitehead, A. L. (2013). Images of a loving God and sense of meaning in life. Social Indicators Research, 111, 25-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9982-7
[1] Bruce, V., Young, A., Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. [2] Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. [3] Berant, E., Mikulincer, M., & Florian, V. (2001). Attachment style and mental health: A 1-year follow-up study of mothers of infants with congenital heart disease. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 956-968.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167201278004 [4] Bodner, E., Bergman, Y. S., & Cohen-Fridel, S. (2013). Do attachment styles affect the presence and search for meaning in life? Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 1-19. [5] Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. [6] Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46-76). New York: Guilford Press. [7] Collins, N. L., & Ford, M. B. (2010).Responding to the needs of others: The caregiving behavioural system in intimate relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 235-244.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407509360907 [8] Crumbaugh, J. C. (1968). Cross-validation of a purpose-in-life test based on Frankl’s concepts. Journal of Individual Psychology, 24, 74-81. [9] Davila, J., & Sargent, E. (2003). The meaning of life (events) predicts change in attachment security. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1383-1395.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167203256374 [10] Dyson, J., Cobbs, M., & Forman, D. (1997). The meaning of spirituality: A literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26, 1183-1188. [11] Debats, D. L. (1998). Measurement of personal meaning: The psychometric properties of the Life Regard Index. In P.T.P. Wong & P.S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning (pp. 237-260). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [12] Emmons, R. A. (2003). Personal goals, life meaning, and virtue: Wellsprings of a positive life. In C. L. M. Keyes, & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived (pp. 105-128). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10594-005 [13] Erikson, E. H. (1950/1993). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. [14] Farran, C. J., Miller, B. H., Kaufman, J. E., Donner, E., & Dogg, L. (1999).Finding meaning through caregiving: Development of an instrument for family caregivers of persons with Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 1107-1125.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199909)55:9%3c%3e1.0.CO;2-F/issuetoc
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199909)55:9<1107::AID-JCLP8>3.0.CO;2-V [15] Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Washington Square Press. [16] Haley, W. E., LaMonde, L. A., Han, B., Burton, A. M., & Schonwetter, R. (2003). Predictors of depression and life satisfaction among spousal caregivers in hospice: Application of a stress process model. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 6, 215-224.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/109662103764978461 [17] Hansen, T. (2012). Parenthood and happiness: A review of folk theories versus empirical evidence. Social Indicators Research, 108, 29-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9865-y [18] Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511 [19] Impett, E. A., Gable, S., & Peplau, L. A. (2005). Giving up and giving in: The costs and benefits of daily sacrifice in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 327-344.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.327 [20] Kashdan, T. B., & Steger, M. F. (2007). Curiosity and pathways to well-being and meaning in life: Traits, states, and everyday behaviours. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 159-173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-007-9068-7 [21] Kim, Y., Carver, C. S., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T. (2008).Adult attachment and psychological well-being in cancer caregivers. The mediational role of spouses’ motives for caregiving. Health Psychology, 27, 144-154.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.2(Suppl.).S144 [22] Kogan, A., Impett, E. A., Oveis, C., Hui, B., Gordon, A., & Keltner, D. (2010). When giving feels good: The intrinsic benefits of sacrifice in romantic relationships for the communally motivated. Psychological Science, 21, 1918-1924.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797610388815 [23] Kunce, L. J., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). An attachment-theoretical approach to caregiving in romantic relationships. In K. Bartholomew, & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 5, pp. 205-237). London: Kingsley. [24] Magai, C., Hunziker, J., Mesias, W., & Culver, L. C. (2000). Adult attachment styles and emotional biases. International Journal of Behavioural development, 24, 301-309. [25] Marris, P. (1996). Attachment in private and public life. New York: Routledge. [26] Maslow, A. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: Viking. [27] Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2005). Mental representations of attachment security: Theoretical foundation for a positive social psychology. In M. W. Baldwin (Ed.), Interpersonal cognition (pp. 233-266). New York: Guilford Press. [28] Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press. [29] Peterson, C., Park , N., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Orientations to happiness and life satisfaction: The full versus the empty life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 25-41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-004-1278-z [30] Reker, G. T. (2005). Meaning in life of young, middle-aged, and older adults: Factorial validity, age, and gender invariance of the Personal Meaning Index (PMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 71-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.03.010 [31] Reker, G. T., Peacock, E. J., & Wong, P. T. P. (1987). Meaning and purpose in life and well-being: A life span perspective. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 44-49.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronj/42.1.44 [32] Ronen, S., & Mikulincer, M. (2009). Attachment orientations and job burnout: The mediating roles of team cohesion and organizational fairness. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26, 549-567.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407509347930 [33] Schnell, T. (2009). The Sources of Meaning and Meaning in Life Questionnaire (SoMe): Relations to demographics and well-being. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 483-499.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760903271074 [34] Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfilment. New York: Free Press. [35] Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2002). Attachment-related psychodynamics. Attachment and Human Development, 4, 133-161.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616730210154171 [36] Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2012). An attachment perspective on coping with existential concerns. In P. R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer (Eds.), Meaning, mortality, and choice: The social psychology of existential concerns (pp. 291-307). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/13748-016 [37] Shaver, P. R., Mikulincer, M., & Shemesh-Iron, M. (2009). A behavioural systems perspective on prosocial behaviour. In M. Mikulincer, & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behaviour: The better angels of our nature (pp. 73-92). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. [38] Steger, M. F. (2009). Meaning in life. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 679-687). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [39] Steger, M. F. (2012). Experiencing meaning in life: Optimal functioning at the nexus of well being, psychopathology and spirituality. In P. T. P. Wong, & P. S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning (2nd ed., pp. 165-184). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [40] Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 53, 30-93.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80 [41] Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., Sullivan, B. A., & Lorentz, D. (2008). Understanding the search for meaning in life: Personality, cognitive style, and the dynamic between seeking and experiencing meaning. Journal of Personality, 76, 199-228.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00484.x [42] Stewart, L. (2011). Weaving the fabric of attachment. International Journal of Integrative Psychotherapy, 2, 1-9. [43] Stroope, S., Draper, S., & Whitehead, A. L. (2013). Images of a loving God and sense of meaning in life. Social Indicators Research, 111, 25-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9982-7