Detection and Characterization of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Toilet and Classroom Door Handles in Selected Secondary Schools in Nairobi County
Affiliation(s)
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Itromid KEMRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Centres for Microbiology Research, KEMRI, Nairobi, Kenya.
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Itromid KEMRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Centres for Microbiology Research, KEMRI, Nairobi, Kenya.
ABSTRACT
Background: Staphylococcus aureus is found on all surfaces especially in public areas like hospitals and schools and on frequently touched areas like toilet and classroom door handles. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus which is resistant to methicillin. There are two types of MRSA: Community acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) and hospital acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA). MRSA in the community presents a significant reservoir that could enter into healthcare facilities and spread among patients and also a risk for immune compromised persons in the community. Methodology: The study aimed at determining the prevalence of MRSA isolated from toilet and classroom door handles as a potential source of infection to the students and the workers in selected schools in Nairobi, Kenya. The study also compared the prevalence of MRSA between boarding and non-boarding girls, boys and mixed (both girls and boys in the same school) secondary schools. Twelve secondary schools in Nairobi County were randomly selected and 306 samples from both the toilet and classroom door handles were collected using sterile swabs and transported to the laboratory. Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus was done by the use of selective media Mannitol salt agar, antibiotic susceptibility of isolates was done by disk diffusion method, and molecular detection of mecA and PVL genes were done by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: The prevalence of S. aureus was 20% and 15% were MRSA positive by both Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test and PCR detection. 20% showed the presence of PVL genes, 8% showed the presence of both genes and 56% of isolates with mecA gene had PVL genes. Conclusion: The presence of MRSA in this study emphasizes the need to formulate hygiene measures to prevent possible spread of MRSA and other transmissible pathogens to students and workers in the schools.
Background: Staphylococcus aureus is found on all surfaces especially in public areas like hospitals and schools and on frequently touched areas like toilet and classroom door handles. Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus which is resistant to methicillin. There are two types of MRSA: Community acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) and hospital acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA). MRSA in the community presents a significant reservoir that could enter into healthcare facilities and spread among patients and also a risk for immune compromised persons in the community. Methodology: The study aimed at determining the prevalence of MRSA isolated from toilet and classroom door handles as a potential source of infection to the students and the workers in selected schools in Nairobi, Kenya. The study also compared the prevalence of MRSA between boarding and non-boarding girls, boys and mixed (both girls and boys in the same school) secondary schools. Twelve secondary schools in Nairobi County were randomly selected and 306 samples from both the toilet and classroom door handles were collected using sterile swabs and transported to the laboratory. Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus was done by the use of selective media Mannitol salt agar, antibiotic susceptibility of isolates was done by disk diffusion method, and molecular detection of mecA and PVL genes were done by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: The prevalence of S. aureus was 20% and 15% were MRSA positive by both Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test and PCR detection. 20% showed the presence of PVL genes, 8% showed the presence of both genes and 56% of isolates with mecA gene had PVL genes. Conclusion: The presence of MRSA in this study emphasizes the need to formulate hygiene measures to prevent possible spread of MRSA and other transmissible pathogens to students and workers in the schools.
Cite this paper
C. Mbogori, A. Muigai and S. Kariuki, "Detection and Characterization of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Toilet and Classroom Door Handles in Selected Secondary Schools in Nairobi County," Open Journal of Medical Microbiology, Vol. 3 No. 4, 2013, pp. 248-252. doi: 10.4236/ojmm.2013.34037.
C. Mbogori, A. Muigai and S. Kariuki, "Detection and Characterization of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Toilet and Classroom Door Handles in Selected Secondary Schools in Nairobi County," Open Journal of Medical Microbiology, Vol. 3 No. 4, 2013, pp. 248-252. doi: 10.4236/ojmm.2013.34037.
References
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[1] K. J. Ryan and C. G. Ray, “Sherris Medical Microbiology,” 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004. [2] N. Cimolai, “MRSA and the Environment: Implications for Comprehensive Control Measures,” European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases: Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology, Vol. 27, No. 7, 2008, pp. 481-493. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10096-008-0471-0 [3] B. T. Cenci-Goga, M. Karama, P. V. Rossitto, R. A. Morgante and J. S. Cullor, “Enterotoxin Production by Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Mastitic Cows,” Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 66, No. 9, 2003, pp. 1693-1696. [4] H. F. Chambers and F. R. DeLeo, “Waves of Resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the Antibiotic Era,” Nature Reviews Microbiology, Vol. 7, No. 9, 2009, pp. 629-641. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2200 [5] A. Clauditz, A. Resch, K. P. Wieland, A. Peschel and F. G?tz, “Staphyloxanthin Plays a Role in the Fitness of Staphylococcus aureus and Its Ability to Cope with Oxidative Stress,” Infection and Immunity, Vol. 74, No. 8, 2006, pp. 4950-4953. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00204-06 [6] M. Aires De Sousa and H. De Lencastre, “Bridges from Hospitals to the Laboratory: Genetic Portraits of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clones,” FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology, Vol. 40, No. 2, 2004, pp. 101-111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0928-8244(03)00370-5 [7] T. Ito and K. Hiramatsu, “Acquisition of Methicillin Resistance and Progression of Multi Antibiotic Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus,” YMJ: Yonsei Medical Journal, Vol. 39, 1998, pp. 526-533. [8] K. Sieradzki and A. Tomasz, “Inhibition of Cell Wall Turnover and Autolysis by Vancomycin in a Highly Vancomycin-Resistant Mutant of Staphylococcus aureus,” Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. 179, No. 8, 1997, pp. 2557-2566. [9] G. A. J. Ayliffe, W. Brumfitt, M. W. Caewell, B. D. Cookson and G. Duckworth, “Working Party Report— Revised Guidelines for Control of Epidemic Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus,” Journal of Hospital Infection, Vol. 16, 1990, pp. 351-377. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0195-6701(90)90008-C [10] I. M. Malonza, M. A. Omari, J. J. Bwayo, A. K. Mwatha, A. N. Mutere, E. M. Murage and J. O. Ndinya-Achola, “Community Acquired Bacterial Infections and Their Antimicrobial Susceptibility in Nairobi, Kenya,” East African Medical Journal, Vol. 74, No. 3, 1997, pp. 166-170. [11] S. I. Smith, B. Opere, H. T. Goodluck, O. T. Akindolire, A. Folaranmi, O. M. Odekeye and E. A. Omonigbehin “Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of Staphylococcus Species Isolated from Telephone Receivers,” Singapore Medical Journal, Vol. 50, No. 2, 2009, pp. 208-211. [12] A. M. Al-Mohana, A. H. Al-Charrakh, F. H. Nasir and M. K. Al-Kudhairy, “Community Acquired Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Carrying MecA and Panton Valentine leukocidin (PVL) Genes Isolated from the Holy Shrine in Najaf, Iraq,” Journal of Bacteriology Research, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2012, pp. 15-23. [13] A. Gandara, L. C. Mota, C. Flores, H. R. Perez, C. F. Green and S. G. S Gibb, “Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus and Antibiotic-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Residential Indoor Bioaerosols,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 114, No. 12, 2006, pp. 1859-1864. [14] P. Dufour, Y. Gillet, M. Bes, G. Lina, F. Vandenesch, D. Floret, J. Etienne and H. Richet, “Community-Acquired Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections in France: Emergence of a Single Clone that Produces Panton-Valentine Leukocidin,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, Vol. 35, 2002, pp. 819-824. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/342576