Relation between self-recalled childhood physical activity and adult physical activity: The women’s health initiative
Author(s)
Deborah Goodman*,
Hannah L. Park,
Marcia Stefanick,
Erin LeBlanc,
Jennifer Bea,
Lihong Qi,
Kristopher Kapphahn,
Michael Lamonte,
Tood Manini,
Manisha Desai,
Hoda Anton-Culver
Affiliation(s)
Department of Epidemiology, University of California, Irvine, USA. S Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University, Palo Alto, USA. Center for Health Research, Kaiser Permanente, Portland, USA. Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona, USA. Department of Public Health, University of California Davis, Sacramento, USA. Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, USA. Institute on Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
Department of Epidemiology, University of California, Irvine, USA. S Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University, Palo Alto, USA. Center for Health Research, Kaiser Permanente, Portland, USA. Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona, USA. Department of Public Health, University of California Davis, Sacramento, USA. Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, USA. Institute on Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
ABSTRACT
Background: Evidence suggests that childhood physical activity may play a role in the etiology and prevention of adult chronic diseases. Because researchers must often depend on self-recalled physical activity data many years after the exposure, it is important to understand factors which may influence adult recall of childhood physical activity. This study evaluated the influence of adult characteristics on reported childhood physical activity and the association between adult physical activity and self-recalled childhood physical activity. Methods: 48,066 post-menopausal women from the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study reported their physical activity level during ages 5-9, 10-14, and 15-19. Results: In this cohort, over 65% of the population reported the same category of physical activity over the three childhood age groups. While higher levels of childhood physical activity were significantly associated with higher adult physical activity, this association varied by race/ethnicity, education, smoking, body mass index, history of diabetes or cardiovascular disease, social support and physical functional status. Women who were consistently highly active reported adult physical activity levels that were 2.82 MET-hr/week (95% C.I. = 2.43, 3.20) higher compared to women who were always physically inactive during childhood. Conclusions: It is important for researchers to understand the influence of adult characteristics on reported childhood physical activity.
Background: Evidence suggests that childhood physical activity may play a role in the etiology and prevention of adult chronic diseases. Because researchers must often depend on self-recalled physical activity data many years after the exposure, it is important to understand factors which may influence adult recall of childhood physical activity. This study evaluated the influence of adult characteristics on reported childhood physical activity and the association between adult physical activity and self-recalled childhood physical activity. Methods: 48,066 post-menopausal women from the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study reported their physical activity level during ages 5-9, 10-14, and 15-19. Results: In this cohort, over 65% of the population reported the same category of physical activity over the three childhood age groups. While higher levels of childhood physical activity were significantly associated with higher adult physical activity, this association varied by race/ethnicity, education, smoking, body mass index, history of diabetes or cardiovascular disease, social support and physical functional status. Women who were consistently highly active reported adult physical activity levels that were 2.82 MET-hr/week (95% C.I. = 2.43, 3.20) higher compared to women who were always physically inactive during childhood. Conclusions: It is important for researchers to understand the influence of adult characteristics on reported childhood physical activity.
Cite this paper
Goodman, D. , Park, H. , Stefanick, M. , LeBlanc, E. , Bea, J. , Qi, L. , Kapphahn, K. , Lamonte, M. , Manini, T. , Desai, M. and Anton-Culver, H. (2013) Relation between self-recalled childhood physical activity and adult physical activity: The women’s health initiative. Open Journal of Epidemiology, 3, 224-231. doi: 10.4236/ojepi.2013.34033.
Goodman, D. , Park, H. , Stefanick, M. , LeBlanc, E. , Bea, J. , Qi, L. , Kapphahn, K. , Lamonte, M. , Manini, T. , Desai, M. and Anton-Culver, H. (2013) Relation between self-recalled childhood physical activity and adult physical activity: The women’s health initiative. Open Journal of Epidemiology, 3, 224-231. doi: 10.4236/ojepi.2013.34033.
References
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Journal of Neurophysiology, 88, 2187-2195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00152.2002 [5] Friedenreich, C.M. (2011) Physical activity and breast cancer: Review of the epidemiologic evidence and biologic mechanisms. Recent Results Cancer Research, 188, 125-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-10858-7_11 [6] Gluckman, P.D., Hanson, M.A., Cooper, C. and Thornburg, K.L. (2008) Effect of in utero and early-life conditions on adult health and disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 359, 61-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0708473 [7] Telama, R., Yang, X., Viikari, J., Valimak, I., Wanne, O. and Raitakari, O. (2005) Physical activity from childhood to adulthood: A 21-year tracking study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28, 267-273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.12.003 [8] Cleland, V., Dwyer, T. and Venn, A. (2012) Which domains of childhood physical activity predict physical activity in adulthood? A 20-year prospective tracking study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 46, 595-602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2011-090508 [9] Evenson, K.R., Wilcox, S., Pettinger, M., Bruner, R., King, A.C. and McTierman, A. (2002) Vigorous leisure activity through women’s adult life. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 156, 945-953. [10] The Women’s Health Initiative Study Group (1998) Design of the women’s health initiative clinical trial and observational study. Control Clinical Trials, 19, 61-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0197-2456(97)00078-0 [11] Hays, J., Hunt, J.R., Hubbell, F.A., Anderson, G.L., Limacher, M., Allen, C. and Rossouw, J.E. (2003) The women’s health initiative recruitment methods and results. Annals of Epidemiology, 13, S18-S77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(03)00042-5 [12] Langer, R.D., White, E., Lewis, C.E., Kotchen, J.M., Hendrix, S.L. and Trevisan, M. (2003). The women’s health initiative observational study: Baseline characteristics of participants and reliability of baseline measures. Annals of Epidemiology, 13, S107-S121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(03)00047-4 [13] Blair, S.N., Dowda, M., Pate, R.R., Kronenfeld, J., Howe, H.G., Parker, G., et al. (1991) Reliability of long-term recall of participation in physical activity by middle-aged men and women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 133, 266-275. [14] Falkner, K.L., Trevisan, M. and McCann, S.E. (1999) Reliability of recall of physical activity in the distant past. American Journal of Epidemiology, 150, 195-205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009980 [15] Irwin, M.L., McTiernan, A., Manson, J.E., Thomson, C.A., Sternfeld, B., Stefanick, M.L., et al. (2011) Physical activity and survival in postmenopausal women with breast cancer: Results from the women’s health initiative. Cancer Prevention Research, 4, 522-529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0295 [16] Meyer, A.M., Evenson, D.R., Morimoto, L., Siscovick, D. and White, E. (2009) Test-retest reliability of the women’s health initiative physical activity questionnaire. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41, 530-538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31818ace55 [17] Johnson-Kozlow, M., Rock, C.L., Gilpin, E.A., Hollenbach, K.A. and Pierce, J.P. (2007) Validation of the WHI brief physical activity questionnaire among women diagnosed with breast cancer. American Journal of Health Behavior, 31, 193-202. http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.31.2.8 [18] Hays, R., Sherbourne, C. and Mazel, R. (1993) The rand 36-item survey 1.0. Health Economics, 2, 217-227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.4730020305 [19] Wiklund, I., Gorkin, L., Pawitan, Y., Schron, E., Schoenberger, J., Jared, L. and Shumaer, S. (1992) Methods of assessing quality of life in the cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial (CAST). Quality of Life Research, 1, 187-201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00635618 [20] Britten, P., Marcoe, K., Yamini, S. and Davis, D. (2006) Development of food group composites and nutrient profile for the MyPyramid food guidance system. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 38, S78-S92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2006.08.007 [21] Chiuve, S.E., Fung, T.T., Rimm, E.B., Hu, F.B., McCullough, M.L., Wang, M., et al. (2012) Alternative dietary indices both strongly predict risk of chronic disease. Journal of Nutrition, 142, 1009-1018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.157222 [22] Sherbourne, S.D. and Stewart, A.L. (1991) The MOS social support survey. Social Science & Medicine, 32, 705-714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(91)90150-B [23] Phipps, A.I., Chlebowski, R.T., Prentice, R., McTiernan, A., Stefanick, M.L., Wactawski-Wende, J., et al. (2011) Body size, physical activity, and risk of triple-negative and estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 20, 454-463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-10-0974 [24] Vanreusel, B., Renson, R., Beunen, G., Claessens, A.L., Lefevre, J., Lysens, R.L., et al. (1997) A longitudinal study of youth sport participation and adherence to sport in adulthood. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 32, 373-387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/101269097032004003 [25] Malina, R.M. (2001) Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood: A perspective from tracking studies. Quest, 53, 346-355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2001.10491751 [26] Tammelin, T., Nayha, S., Laitinen, J., Rintamaki, H. and Jarvelin, M.-J. (2003) Physical activity and social status on adolescence as predictors of physical inactivity in adulthood. Preventive Medicine, 37, 375-381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0091-7435(03)00162-2 [27] Curtis, J., McTeer, W. and White, P. (1999) Exploring effects of school sport experiences on sport participation in later life. Sociological Sport Journal, 16, 348-365. [28] Frandin, K., Mellstrom, D., Dundh, V. and Grimby, G. (1995) A life span perspective on patterns of physical activity and functional performance at the age of 76. Gerontology, 41, 109-120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000213671 [29] Gordon-Larsen, P., McMurray, R.G. and Popkin, B.M. (2000) Determinants of adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics, 105, E83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.105.6.e83 [30] McMurray, R.G., Ward, D.S., Elder, J.P., Lytle, L.A., Strikmiller, P.K., Baggett, C.D. and Young, D.R. (2008) Do overweight girls overreport physical activity? American Journal of Health Behavior, 32, 538-546. http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.32.5.9 [31] Warner, E.T., Wolin, K.Y., Duncan, D.T., Heil, D.P., Askew, S. and Bennett, G.G. (2012) Differential accuracy of physical activity self-report by weight status. American Journal of Health Behavior, 36, 168-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.36.2.3 [32] Timperio Am Salmon, J. and Crawford, D. (2003) Validity and reliability of a physical activity recall instrument among overweight and non-overweight men and women. The Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 6, 477-491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1440-2440(03)80273-6 [33] Neuhouser, M.L., Di, C., Tinker, L.F., Thomson, C., Sternfeld, B., Mossavar-Rahmani, Y., et al. (2013) Physical activity assessment: Biomarkers and self-reported activity-related energy expenditure in the WHI. American Journal of Epidemiology, 15, 576-585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kws269 [34] Jose, K.A., Blizzard, L., Dwer, T., McKercher, C. and Venn, A.J. (2011) Childhood and adolescent predictors of leisure time physical activity during the transition from adolescence to adulthood: A population based co-hort study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 8, 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-8-54 [35] Willey, J.Z., Paik, M.C., Sacco, R., Elkind, M.S.V. and Boden-Albala, B. (2010) Social determinants of physical inactivity in the Northern Manhattan Study (NO-MAS). Journal of Community Health, 35, 602-608. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-010-9249-2 [36] Pratt, M., Macera, C.A. and Blanton, C. (1999) Levels of physical activity and inactivity in children and adults in the United States: current evidence and research issues. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 31, S526- S533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199911001-00007 [37] Caspersen, C.J., Pereira, M.A. and Curran, K.M. (2000) Changes in physical activity patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectional age. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 32, 1601-1609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200009000-00013 [38] Allison, K.R., Adlaf, E.M., Dwyer, J.J.M., Lysy, D.C. and Irving, H.M. (2007) The decline in physical activity among adolescent students. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 98, 97-100. [39] Blair, S.N., Dowda, M., Pate, R.R., Kronenfeld, J., Howe, H.G., Parker, G., Blair, A. and Fridinger, F. (1991) Reliability of long-term recall of participation in physical activity by middle-aged men and women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 133, 266-275.
[1] United States Department of Health and Human Services (1996) Physical activity and health: A report of the surgeon general: Atlanta, GA: Public Health Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. [2] Brown, W.J., Burton, N.W. and Rowan, P.J. (2007) Updating the evidence on physical activity and health in women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 404-411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2007.07.029 [3] Mora, S., Cook, N., Buring, J.E., Ridker, P.M. and Lee, I.M. (2007) Physical activity and reduced risk of car-diovascular events: Potential mediating mechanisms. Circulation, 116, 2110-2118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.729939 [4] Gomez-Pinilla, F., Ying, Z., Roy, R.R., Molteni, R. and Edgerton, V.R. (2002) Voluntary exercise induces a BDNF-mediated mechanism that promotes neuro-plasticity. Journal of Neurophysiology, 88, 2187-2195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00152.2002 [5] Friedenreich, C.M. (2011) Physical activity and breast cancer: Review of the epidemiologic evidence and biologic mechanisms. Recent Results Cancer Research, 188, 125-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-10858-7_11 [6] Gluckman, P.D., Hanson, M.A., Cooper, C. and Thornburg, K.L. (2008) Effect of in utero and early-life conditions on adult health and disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 359, 61-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0708473 [7] Telama, R., Yang, X., Viikari, J., Valimak, I., Wanne, O. and Raitakari, O. (2005) Physical activity from childhood to adulthood: A 21-year tracking study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28, 267-273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.12.003 [8] Cleland, V., Dwyer, T. and Venn, A. (2012) Which domains of childhood physical activity predict physical activity in adulthood? A 20-year prospective tracking study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 46, 595-602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2011-090508 [9] Evenson, K.R., Wilcox, S., Pettinger, M., Bruner, R., King, A.C. and McTierman, A. (2002) Vigorous leisure activity through women’s adult life. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 156, 945-953. [10] The Women’s Health Initiative Study Group (1998) Design of the women’s health initiative clinical trial and observational study. Control Clinical Trials, 19, 61-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0197-2456(97)00078-0 [11] Hays, J., Hunt, J.R., Hubbell, F.A., Anderson, G.L., Limacher, M., Allen, C. and Rossouw, J.E. (2003) The women’s health initiative recruitment methods and results. Annals of Epidemiology, 13, S18-S77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(03)00042-5 [12] Langer, R.D., White, E., Lewis, C.E., Kotchen, J.M., Hendrix, S.L. and Trevisan, M. (2003). The women’s health initiative observational study: Baseline characteristics of participants and reliability of baseline measures. Annals of Epidemiology, 13, S107-S121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(03)00047-4 [13] Blair, S.N., Dowda, M., Pate, R.R., Kronenfeld, J., Howe, H.G., Parker, G., et al. (1991) Reliability of long-term recall of participation in physical activity by middle-aged men and women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 133, 266-275. [14] Falkner, K.L., Trevisan, M. and McCann, S.E. (1999) Reliability of recall of physical activity in the distant past. American Journal of Epidemiology, 150, 195-205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009980 [15] Irwin, M.L., McTiernan, A., Manson, J.E., Thomson, C.A., Sternfeld, B., Stefanick, M.L., et al. (2011) Physical activity and survival in postmenopausal women with breast cancer: Results from the women’s health initiative. Cancer Prevention Research, 4, 522-529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0295 [16] Meyer, A.M., Evenson, D.R., Morimoto, L., Siscovick, D. and White, E. (2009) Test-retest reliability of the women’s health initiative physical activity questionnaire. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41, 530-538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31818ace55 [17] Johnson-Kozlow, M., Rock, C.L., Gilpin, E.A., Hollenbach, K.A. and Pierce, J.P. (2007) Validation of the WHI brief physical activity questionnaire among women diagnosed with breast cancer. American Journal of Health Behavior, 31, 193-202. http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.31.2.8 [18] Hays, R., Sherbourne, C. and Mazel, R. (1993) The rand 36-item survey 1.0. Health Economics, 2, 217-227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.4730020305 [19] Wiklund, I., Gorkin, L., Pawitan, Y., Schron, E., Schoenberger, J., Jared, L. and Shumaer, S. (1992) Methods of assessing quality of life in the cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial (CAST). Quality of Life Research, 1, 187-201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00635618 [20] Britten, P., Marcoe, K., Yamini, S. and Davis, D. (2006) Development of food group composites and nutrient profile for the MyPyramid food guidance system. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 38, S78-S92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2006.08.007 [21] Chiuve, S.E., Fung, T.T., Rimm, E.B., Hu, F.B., McCullough, M.L., Wang, M., et al. (2012) Alternative dietary indices both strongly predict risk of chronic disease. Journal of Nutrition, 142, 1009-1018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.157222 [22] Sherbourne, S.D. and Stewart, A.L. (1991) The MOS social support survey. Social Science & Medicine, 32, 705-714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(91)90150-B [23] Phipps, A.I., Chlebowski, R.T., Prentice, R., McTiernan, A., Stefanick, M.L., Wactawski-Wende, J., et al. (2011) Body size, physical activity, and risk of triple-negative and estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 20, 454-463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-10-0974 [24] Vanreusel, B., Renson, R., Beunen, G., Claessens, A.L., Lefevre, J., Lysens, R.L., et al. (1997) A longitudinal study of youth sport participation and adherence to sport in adulthood. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 32, 373-387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/101269097032004003 [25] Malina, R.M. (2001) Adherence to physical activity from childhood to adulthood: A perspective from tracking studies. Quest, 53, 346-355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2001.10491751 [26] Tammelin, T., Nayha, S., Laitinen, J., Rintamaki, H. and Jarvelin, M.-J. (2003) Physical activity and social status on adolescence as predictors of physical inactivity in adulthood. Preventive Medicine, 37, 375-381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0091-7435(03)00162-2 [27] Curtis, J., McTeer, W. and White, P. (1999) Exploring effects of school sport experiences on sport participation in later life. Sociological Sport Journal, 16, 348-365. [28] Frandin, K., Mellstrom, D., Dundh, V. and Grimby, G. (1995) A life span perspective on patterns of physical activity and functional performance at the age of 76. Gerontology, 41, 109-120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000213671 [29] Gordon-Larsen, P., McMurray, R.G. and Popkin, B.M. (2000) Determinants of adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics, 105, E83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.105.6.e83 [30] McMurray, R.G., Ward, D.S., Elder, J.P., Lytle, L.A., Strikmiller, P.K., Baggett, C.D. and Young, D.R. (2008) Do overweight girls overreport physical activity? American Journal of Health Behavior, 32, 538-546. http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.32.5.9 [31] Warner, E.T., Wolin, K.Y., Duncan, D.T., Heil, D.P., Askew, S. and Bennett, G.G. (2012) Differential accuracy of physical activity self-report by weight status. American Journal of Health Behavior, 36, 168-178. http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.36.2.3 [32] Timperio Am Salmon, J. and Crawford, D. (2003) Validity and reliability of a physical activity recall instrument among overweight and non-overweight men and women. The Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 6, 477-491. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1440-2440(03)80273-6 [33] Neuhouser, M.L., Di, C., Tinker, L.F., Thomson, C., Sternfeld, B., Mossavar-Rahmani, Y., et al. (2013) Physical activity assessment: Biomarkers and self-reported activity-related energy expenditure in the WHI. American Journal of Epidemiology, 15, 576-585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kws269 [34] Jose, K.A., Blizzard, L., Dwer, T., McKercher, C. and Venn, A.J. (2011) Childhood and adolescent predictors of leisure time physical activity during the transition from adolescence to adulthood: A population based co-hort study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 8, 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-8-54 [35] Willey, J.Z., Paik, M.C., Sacco, R., Elkind, M.S.V. and Boden-Albala, B. (2010) Social determinants of physical inactivity in the Northern Manhattan Study (NO-MAS). Journal of Community Health, 35, 602-608. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-010-9249-2 [36] Pratt, M., Macera, C.A. and Blanton, C. (1999) Levels of physical activity and inactivity in children and adults in the United States: current evidence and research issues. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 31, S526- S533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199911001-00007 [37] Caspersen, C.J., Pereira, M.A. and Curran, K.M. (2000) Changes in physical activity patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectional age. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 32, 1601-1609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200009000-00013 [38] Allison, K.R., Adlaf, E.M., Dwyer, J.J.M., Lysy, D.C. and Irving, H.M. (2007) The decline in physical activity among adolescent students. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 98, 97-100. [39] Blair, S.N., Dowda, M., Pate, R.R., Kronenfeld, J., Howe, H.G., Parker, G., Blair, A. and Fridinger, F. (1991) Reliability of long-term recall of participation in physical activity by middle-aged men and women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 133, 266-275.