Beneficial n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels and n6:n3 ratios after 4-week EPA + DHA supplementation associated with reduced CRP: A pilot study in healthy young adults
Affiliation(s)
College of Nursing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA. Department of Statistics, College of Arts and Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA.
College of Nursing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA. Department of Statistics, College of Arts and Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA.
ABSTRACT
Chronic systemic inflammation is associated with many conditions of aging such as atherosclerosis. Lowering high n-6:n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratios are commonly found in Western diets aids in preventing inflammatory-related diseases. However, it is not clear whether dietary interventions designed to alter n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios can reduce systemic inflammation in younger adults. Studies that evaluate PUFA intake often use subjective data from food frequency questionnaires or food records rather than more precise physiological measures of PUFAs (e.g. plasma levels). Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study that analyzed data from the experimental parent study of younger adults (n = 18), was to determine whether plasma PUFA levels were associated with levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), an inflammatory marker, and if supplementation with n-3 PUFAs was correlated with rising n-3 PUFA concentrations in plasma and decreasing n-6:n-3 ratios. In the parent study, participants received daily either placebo or n-3 PUFA softgels (1.6 g eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA] and 1.2 g docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]). EPA and DHA are the biologically active components in fish oil. Measures included blood for PUFA quantification at baseline and four weeks later, when blister wounds were created and wound fluid and saliva were collected. The saliva samples were used to measure CRP in the present study. We report that CRP was significantly and negatively correlated with total n-3 PUFAs (tau-β = ?0.373, p = 0.031) and positively correlated with n-6:n-3 ratios (tau-β = 0.320, p = 0.063). Those consuming EPA + DHA supplements had significantly higher concentrations of total n-3 PUFAs and significantly lower n-6:n-3 ratios (p < 0.001). The present study has shown that beneficial levels of n-3 PUFAs and n-6:n3 ratios were achieved with 4-weeks of EPA + DHA supplementation and were associated with reduced CRP in young adults. EPA + DHA supplementation for some young adults may help prevent inflammatory conditions later in life.
Cite this paper
McDaniel, J. , Ickes, E. and Holloman, C. (2013) Beneficial n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels and n6:n3 ratios after 4-week EPA + DHA supplementation associated with reduced CRP: A pilot study in healthy young adults. Modern Research in Inflammation, 2, 59-68. doi: 10.4236/mri.2013.24008.
McDaniel, J. , Ickes, E. and Holloman, C. (2013) Beneficial n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels and n6:n3 ratios after 4-week EPA + DHA supplementation associated with reduced CRP: A pilot study in healthy young adults. Modern Research in Inflammation, 2, 59-68. doi: 10.4236/mri.2013.24008.
References
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[1] Calder, P.C. (2010) The 2008 ESPEN Sir David Cuthbertson lecture: Fatty acids and inflammation—From the membrane to the nucleus and from the laboratory bench to the clinic. Clinical Nutrition, 29, 5-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2009.11.003 [2] Simopoulos, A.P. (1996) The role of fatty acids in gene expression: Health implications. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 40, 303-311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000177929 [3] Deckelbaum, R.J., Worgall, T.S. and Seo, T. (2006) N-3 fatty acids and gene expression. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83, 1520S-1525S. [4] Harris, K.A., Hill, A.M. and Kris-Etherton, P.M. (2010) Health benefits of marine-derived omega-3 fatty acids. ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal, 14, 22-28. [5] Fetterman Jr, J.W. and Zdanowicz, M.M. (2009) Therapeutic potential of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in disease. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 66, 1169-1179. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2146/ajhp080411 [6] Hurst, S., Rees, S.G., Randerson, P.F., Caterson, B. and Harwood, J.L. (2009) Contrasting effects of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on cy-clooxygenase-2 in model systems for arthritis. Lipids, 44, 889-896. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11745-009-3347-x [7] Uchiyama, K., Nakamura, M., Odahara, S., Koido, S., Kata-hira, K., Shiraishi, H., Ohkusa, T., Fujise, K. and Tajiri, H. (2010) N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid diet therapy for patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflammatory Bowel Disease, 16, 1696-1707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ibd.21251 [8] Schubert, R., Kitz, R., Beermann, C., Rose, M.A., Lieb, A., Sommerer, P.C., Moskovits, J., Alberternst, H., Bohles, H.J., Schulze, J. and Zielen, S. (2009) Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in asthma after low-dose allergen challenge. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, 148, 321-329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000170386 [9] Barbosa, V.M., Miles, E.A., Calhau, C., Lafuente, E. and Calder, P.C. (2010) Effects of a fish oil containing lipid emulsion on plasma phospholipid fatty acids, inflammatory markers, and clinical outcomes in septic patients: A randomized, controlled clinical trial. Critical Care, 14, R5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/cc8844 [10] Taubes, G. (2002) Cardiovascular disease. Does inflammation cut to the heart of the matter? Science, 296, 242-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.296.5566.242 [11] Clearfield, M.B. (2005) C-reactive protein: A new risk assessment tool for cardiovascular disease. The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, 105, 409-416. [12] Breslow, J.L. (2006) N-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83, 1477S-1482S. [13] Kromhout, D., Bosschieter, E.B. and de Lezenne Coulander, C. (1985) The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 312, 1205-1209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198505093121901 [14] Albert, C.M., Campos, H., Stampfer, M.J., Ridker, P.M., Manson, J.E., Willett, W.C. and Ma, J. (2002) Blood levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids and the risk of sudden death. New England Journal of Medicine 346, 1113-1118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa012918 [15] Bucher, H.C., Hengstler, P., Schindler, C. and Meier, G. (2002) N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Medicine, 112, 298-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(01)01114-7 [16] Nair, G.M. and Connolly, S.J. (2008) Should patients with cardiovascular disease take fish oil? CMAJ, 178, 181-182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.071654 [17] Cleland, L.G., Caughey, G.E., James, M.J. and Proudman, S.M. (2006) Reduction of cardiovascular risk factors with longterm fish oil treatment in early rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of Rheumatology, 33, 1973-1979. [18] Kris-Etherton, P.M., Harris, W.S. and Appel, L.J. (2003) Nutrition committee: Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 23, e20-e30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.0000038493.65177.94 [19] Lichtenstein, A.H., Appel, L.J., Brands, M., Carnethon, M., Daniels, S., Franch, H.A., Franklin, B., Kris-Etherton, P., Harris, W.S., Howard, B., Karanja, N., Lefevre, M., Rudel, L., Sacks, F., Van Horn, L., Winston, M. and Wylie-Rosett, J. (2006) Summary of American Heart Association diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 26, 2186-2191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.0000238352.25222.5e [20] Martinez, V.B. and Gonzalez-Juanatey, J.R. (2009) Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: Clinical applications of C-reactive protein determination. American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs, 9, 3-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/1153161-S0-000000000-00000 [21] Seierstad, S.L., Seljeflot, I., Johansen, O., Hansen, R., Haugen, M., Rosenlund, G., Froyland, L. and Arnesen, H. (2005) Dietary intake of differently fed salmon; the influence on markers of human atherosclerosis. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 35, 52-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1365-2362.2005.01443.x [22] McDaniel, J., Massey, K. and Nicolaou, A. (2011) Fish oil supplementation alters levels of lipid mediators of inflammation in microenvironment of acute human wounds. Wound Repair and Regeneration, 19, 189-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-475X.2010.00659.x [23] US Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Office of Nutritional Products Labeling and Dietary Supplements (FDA/CSFAN) (2000) Letter regarding dietary supplement health claim for omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease, Docket No. 91N-0103. [24] McDaniel, J.C., Belury, M., Ahijevych, K. and Blakely, W. (2008) Omega-3 fatty acids effect on wound healing. Wound Repair and Regeneration, 16, 337-345. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-475X. 2008.00388.x [25] Caughey, G.E., Mantzioris, E., Gibson, R.A., Cleland, L.G. and James, M.J. (1996) The effect on human tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 beta production of diets enriched in n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oil or fish oil. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 63, 116-122. [26] Rees, D., Miles, E., Banerjee, T., Wells, S., Roynette, C., Wahle, K. and Calder, P. 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