Graphic Organizers as a Reading Strategy: Research Findings and Issues
ABSTRACT
The present article extends prior research on graphic organizers mainly used as a reading strategy. Graphic strategies, visual representation of information in a text, refer to different approaches to reading from the traditional, linear text representation. This study constitutes an attempt to shed light on the research evidence regarding the effectiveness of GOs on text learning and the various types of graphic organizers, which use different conventions to communicate information and are classified in various ways. As such, it highlights key concepts, the theoretical and historical foundations of graphic organizers, includes the major types of graphic organizers, summarizes research findings, recommends ways of integrating them in reading lessons, touches on the issue of strategy instruction and its effects on language learning and leaves room for further exploration.
The present article extends prior research on graphic organizers mainly used as a reading strategy. Graphic strategies, visual representation of information in a text, refer to different approaches to reading from the traditional, linear text representation. This study constitutes an attempt to shed light on the research evidence regarding the effectiveness of GOs on text learning and the various types of graphic organizers, which use different conventions to communicate information and are classified in various ways. As such, it highlights key concepts, the theoretical and historical foundations of graphic organizers, includes the major types of graphic organizers, summarizes research findings, recommends ways of integrating them in reading lessons, touches on the issue of strategy instruction and its effects on language learning and leaves room for further exploration.
Cite this paper
Manoli, P. & Papadopoulou, M. (2012). Graphic Organizers as a Reading Strategy: Research Findings and Issues. Creative Education, 3, 348-356. doi: 10.4236/ce.2012.33055.
Manoli, P. & Papadopoulou, M. (2012). Graphic Organizers as a Reading Strategy: Research Findings and Issues. Creative Education, 3, 348-356. doi: 10.4236/ce.2012.33055.
References
[1] Alderson, C., & Urquhart, A. H. (1984). Introduction: What is reading? In C. Alderson, & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language (pp. 16-28). London & New York: Longman. [2] Alvermann, D. E. (1981). The compensatory effect of graphic organizers on text structure. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 208 019. [3] Alvermann, D. E., & Boothby, P. R. (1986). Children’s transfer of graphic organizer instruction. Reading Psychology, 7, 87-100. doi:10.1080/0270271860070203 [4] Amer, A. A. (1994). The effect of knowledge map and underlining training on the reading comprehension of scientific texts. English Specific Purposes, 13, 35-45. doi:10.1016/0889-4906(94)90023-X [5] Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 255-291). New York: Longman. [6] Armbruster, B. B., Anderson, T. H., & Meyer, J. L. (1991). Improving content-area reading using instructional graphics. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 393-416. doi:10.2307/747895 [7] Armbruster, B. B., Anderson, T. H., & Ostertag, J. (1987). Does text structure/summarization instruction facilitate learning from expository text? Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 331-346. doi:10.2307/747972 [8] Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in learning and retention of meaningful material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272. doi:10.1037/h0046669 [9] Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. [10] Balajthy, E., & Weisberg, R. (1990). Effects of reading ability, prior knowledge, topic interest, and locus of control on at-risk college students’ use of graphic organizers and summarizing. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 325838. [11] Barron, R. (1969). The use of vocabulary as an advance organizer. In H. L. Herber, & P. L. Sanders (Eds.), Research in reading in content areas: First year report (pp. 29-39). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Reading and Language Arts Center. [12] Bean, T. W., Singer, H., Sorter, J., & Frazee, C. (1986). The effect of metacognitive instruction in outlining and graphic organizer construction on students’ comprehension in a tenth-grade world history class. Journal of Reading Behavior, 18, 153-169. [13] Berkowitz, S. J. (1986). Effects of instruction in text organization on sixth-grade students’ memory for expository reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 161-178. doi:10.2307/747843 [14] Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 463-494. doi:10.2307/3586295 [15] Boulineau, T., Force, C., Hagan-Burke, S., & Burke, M. D. (2004). Use of story-mapping to increase the story grammar text comprehension of elementary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27, 105-121. doi:10.2307/1593645 [16] Ca?as, A. J., Ford, K. M., Novak, J. D., Hayes, P., Reichherzer, T., & Suri, N. (2001). Online concept maps: Enhancing collaborative learning by using technology with concept maps. The Science Teacher, 68, 49-51. [17] Carrell, P., Pharis, B. G., & Liberto, J. C. (1989). Metacognitive strategy training for ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 647-673. doi:10.2307/3587536 [18] Chularut, P., & DeBacker, T. K. (2004). The in?uence of concept mapping on achievement, self-regulation, and self-e?cacy in students of English as a second language. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 248-263. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2003.09.001 [19] Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Chen, S. F. (2001) Learning through computer-based concept mapping with scaffolding aid. Journal of Computer Assistance Learning, 17, 21-33. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2001.00156.x [20] Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Chen, I. D. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. Journal of Experimental Education, 71, 5-23. doi:10.1080/00220970209602054 [21] Chmielewski, T., & Dansereau, D. F. (1998). Enhancing the recall of text: Knowledge mapping training promotes implicit transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 407-413. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.3.407 [22] Cohen, A. D. (2007). Coming to terms with language learner strategies: Surveying the experts. In A. D. Cohen, & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learning strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 29-45). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [23] Davis, Z. T. (1994). Effects of prereading story mapping on elementary readers’ comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 87, 353- 360. doi:10.1080/00220671.1994.9941266 [24] DeSimone, C, Schmid, R. F., & McEwen, L. A. (2001) Supporting the learning process with collaborative concept mapping using computer-based communication tools and processes. Education Research Evaluation, 7, 263-283. doi:10.1076/edre.7.2.263.3870 [25] Dexter, D. D., Park, Y. J., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). A meta-analytic review of graphic organizers and science instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities: Implications for the intermediate and secondary science classroom. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 26, 204-213. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2011.00341.x [26] DiCecco, V. M., & Gleason, M. M. (2002). Using graphic organizers to attain relational knowledge from expository text. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 306-320. doi:10.1177/00222194020350040201 [27] Dimino, J. A., Taylor, R. M., & Gersten, R. M. (1995). Synthesis of the research on story-grammar as a means to increase comprehension. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 11, 53-72. [28] Earle, R. A., & Barron, R. (1973). An approach for teaching vocabulary in content subjects. In H. L. Herber, & R. F. Barron (Eds.), Research in reading in content areas: Second year report (pp. 84-100). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Reading and Language Arts Center. [29] Estes, T. H., Mills, D. C., & Barron, R. F. (1969). Two methods of introducing students to a reading-learning task in two content subjects. In H. L. Herber, & P. L. Sanders (Eds.), Research in reading in content areas: First year report (pp. 40-48). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Reading and Language Arts Center,. [30] Gajria, M., Jitendra, A. K., Sood, S., & Sacks, G. (2007). Improving comprehension of expository text in students with LD: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 210-225. doi:10.1177/00222194070400030301 [31] Gardill, M. C., & Jitendra, K. A. (1999). Advanced story map instruction: Effects on the reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 33, 2-17. doi:10.1177/002246699903300101 [32] Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Williams, J. P., & Baker, S. (2001).Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71, 279- 320. doi:10.3102/00346543071002279 [33] Geva, E. (1983). Facilitating reading comprehension through flowcharting. Reading Research Quarterly, 18, 384-405. doi:10.2307/747375 [34] Graney, M. J. (1992). A framework for using text graphing. System, 20, 161-167. doi:10.1016/0346-251X(92)90022-U [35] Griffin, C. C., Malone, L. D., & Kameenui, E. J. (1995). Effects of graphic organizer instruction on fifth-grade students. Journal of Educational Research, 89, 98-107. doi:10.1080/00220671.1995.9941200 [36] Griffin, C. C., Simmons, D. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (1991). Investigating the effectiveness of graphic organizer instruction on the comprehension and recall of science content by students with learning disabilities. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 7, 355-376. [37] Griffin, C. C., & Tulbert, B. L. (1995). The effect of graphic organizers on students’ comprehension and recall of expository text: A review of the research and implications for practice. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 11, 73-89. doi:10.1080/1057356950110106 [38] Guri-Rozenblit, S. (1989). Effects of a tree diagram on students’ comprehension of main ideas in an expository text with multiple themes. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 236-247. doi:10.2307/747866 [39] Hall, R. H., Dansereau, D. E., & Skaggs, L. P. (1992). Knowledge maps and the presentation of related information domains. Journal of Experimental Education, 61, 5-18. doi:10.1080/00220973.1992.9943845 [40] Hartley, J., & Davies, I. K. (1976). Preinstructional strategies: The role of pretests, behavioral objectives, overviews and advance organizers. Review of Educational Research, 46, 239-265. doi:10.3102/00346543046002239 [41] Horton, S. C., Lovitt, T. C., & Bergerud, D. (1990). The effectiveness of graphic organizers for three classifications of secondary students in content area classes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 12-29. doi:10.1177/002221949002300107 [42] Idol, L. (1987). Group story mapping: A comprehension strategy for both skilled and unskilled readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 196-205. doi:10.1177/002221948702000401 [43] Idol, L., & Croll, V. (1987). Story mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 109, 214-230. doi:10.2307/1510494 [44] Iranmehr, A., Davari, H., & Erfanie, S. M. (2011). The application of organizers as an efficient technique in ESP textbooks development. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1, 417-422. doi:10.4304/tpls.1.4.417-422 [45] Jiang, X., & Grabe, W. (2007). Graphic organizers in reading instructtion: Research findings and issues. Reading in a Foreign Language, 19, 34-55. [46] Jones, B., Pierce, J., & Hunter, B. (1989). Teaching children to construct graphic representations. Educational Leadership, 46, 20-25. [47] Kang, S. (2004). Using visual organizers to enhance EFL instruction. JALT Journal, 58, 58-67. [48] Katayama, A. D., Robinson, D. H., Devaney, T., & Dubois, N. F. (1997). The interaction of study materials and spaced review on transfer and relational learning. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 411 280. [49] Kiewra, K. A., DuBois, N. F., Christian, D., & McShane, A. (1988). Providing study notes: A comparison of three types of notes for review. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 595-597. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.595 [50] Kiewra, K. A., DuBois, N. F., Christian, D., McShane, A., Meyerhoffer, M., & Roskelley, D. (1991). Note taking functions and techniques. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 240-245. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.2.240 [51] Kiewra, K. A., Kauffman, D. F., Robinson, D. H., Dubois, N. F., & Stanley, R. K. (1999). Supplementing floundering text with adjunct displays. Instructional Science, 27, 373-401. doi:10.1023/A:1003270723360 [52] Kim, A., Vaughn S., Wanzek J., & Wei, S. (2004). Graphic organizers and their effects on the reading comprehension of students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 105- 118. doi:10.1177/00222194040370020201 [53] Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [54] Koumy, E., & Salam, A. (1999). E?ects of three semantic mapping strategies on EFL students reading comprehension. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 435193. [55] McCagg, E. C., & Dansereau, D. F. (1991). A convergent paradigm for examining knowledge mapping as a learning and recall strategy. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 317-324. doi:10.1080/00220671.1991.9941812 [56] Moore, D. W., & Readence, J. E. (1984). A quantitative and qualitative review of graphic organizer research. Journal of Educational Research, 78, 11-17. [57] Nesbit, J. C., & Adesope, O. O. (2006). Learning with concept and knowledge maps: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 76, 413-448. doi:10.3102/00346543076003413 [58] Novak, J. D. (1990). Concept mapping: A useful tool for science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27, 937-949. doi:10.1002/tea.3660271003 [59] Novak, J. D. (1991). Clarify with concept maps: A tool for students and teachers alike. Science Teacher, 58, 45-49. [60] Novak, J. D., & Ca?as, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. URL (Last checked 13 December 2011). http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf [61] Novak, J. D., & Musonda, D. (1991). A twelve-year longitudinal study of science concept learning. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 117-153. doi:10.3102/00028312028001117 [62] O’Donnell, A. M., Dansereau, D. F., & Hall, R. H. (2002). Knowledge maps as scaffolds for cognitive processing. Educational Psychology Review, 14, 71-86. doi:10.1023/A:1013132527007 [63] Oliver, K. (2009). An investigation of concept mapping to improve the reading comprehension of science texts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18, 402-414. doi:10.1007/s10956-009-9157-3 [64] Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117-175. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0102_1 [65] Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P. B., Gaskins, I., Schuder, T., Bergman, J. L., Almasi, J., & Brown, B. (1992). Beyond direct explanation: Transactional instruction of reading comprehension strategies. Elementary School Journal, 92, 513-555. doi:10.1086/461705 [66] Rice, G. E. (1994). Need for explanations in graphic organizer research. Reading Psychology, 15, 39-67. doi:10.1080/0270271940150103 [67] Robinson, D. H., Katayama, A. D., Beth, A., Odom, S., Hsieh, Y., & Vanderveen, A. (2006). Increasing text comprehension and graphic note taking using a partial graphic organizer. Journal of Educational Research, 100, 103-111. doi:10.3200/JOER.100.2.103-111 [68] Robinson, D. H., & Kiewra, K. A. (1995). Visual argument: Graphic organizers are superior to outlines in improving learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 455-467. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.87.3.455 [69] Robinson, D. H., & Schraw, G. (1994). Computational efficiency through visual argument: Do graphic organizers communicate relations in text too effectively. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 399-415. doi:10.1006/ceps.1994.1029 [70] Robinson, D. H., & Skinner, C. H. (1996). Why graphic organizers facilitate search processes: Fewer words or computationally effective indexing? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 161-180. doi:10.1006/ceps.1996.0014 [71] Schmid, R. F., & Telaro, G. (1990). Concept mapping as an instructional strategy for high school biology. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 78-85. [72] Schwartz, S. H., & Fattaleh, D. L. (1972). Representation in deductive problem solving: The matrix. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 95, 343-348. doi:10.1037/h0033669 [73] Simmons, D. C., Griffin, C. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (1988). Effects of teacher-constructed preand post-graphic organizer instruction on sixth-grade science students’ comprehension and recall. Journal of Educational Research, 82, 15-21. [74] Singer, H., & Donlan, D. (1983). Active comprehension: Problem-solving schema with question generation for comprehension of complex short stories. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 166-185. doi:10.2307/747482 [75] Stull, A. T., & Mayer, R. E. (2007). Learning by doing versus learning by viewing: Three experimental comparisons of learner-generated versus author-provided graphic organizers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 808-820. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.808 [76] Suzuki, A., Sato, T., & Awazu, S. (2008). Graphic display of linguistic information in English as a Foreign Language reading. TESOL Quarterly, 42, 591-616. [77] Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-296. doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205 [78] Tang, G. (1992). The effect of graphic representation of knowledge structures on ESL reading comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 177-195. doi:10.1017/S0272263100010810 [79] Vallecorsa, A. L., & de Bettencourt, L. U. (1997). Using a mapping procedure to teach reading and writing to middle grade students with learning disabilities. Education & Treatment of Children, 20, 173-189. [80] Vaughn, S., & Edmonds, M. (2006). Reading comprehension for older readers. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 131-137. doi:10.1177/10534512060410030101 [81] Vekiri, I. (2002). What is the value of graphical displays in learning? Educational Psychology Review, 14, 261-312. doi:10.1023/A:1016064429161 [82] Venn, J. (1880). On the diagrammatic and mechanical representation of propositions and reasonings. Dublin Pholosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 9, 1-18.
[1] Alderson, C., & Urquhart, A. H. (1984). Introduction: What is reading? In C. Alderson, & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language (pp. 16-28). London & New York: Longman. [2] Alvermann, D. E. (1981). The compensatory effect of graphic organizers on text structure. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 208 019. [3] Alvermann, D. E., & Boothby, P. R. (1986). Children’s transfer of graphic organizer instruction. Reading Psychology, 7, 87-100. doi:10.1080/0270271860070203 [4] Amer, A. A. (1994). The effect of knowledge map and underlining training on the reading comprehension of scientific texts. English Specific Purposes, 13, 35-45. doi:10.1016/0889-4906(94)90023-X [5] Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 255-291). New York: Longman. [6] Armbruster, B. B., Anderson, T. H., & Meyer, J. L. (1991). Improving content-area reading using instructional graphics. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 393-416. doi:10.2307/747895 [7] Armbruster, B. B., Anderson, T. H., & Ostertag, J. (1987). Does text structure/summarization instruction facilitate learning from expository text? Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 331-346. doi:10.2307/747972 [8] Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in learning and retention of meaningful material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272. doi:10.1037/h0046669 [9] Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. [10] Balajthy, E., & Weisberg, R. (1990). Effects of reading ability, prior knowledge, topic interest, and locus of control on at-risk college students’ use of graphic organizers and summarizing. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 325838. [11] Barron, R. (1969). The use of vocabulary as an advance organizer. In H. L. Herber, & P. L. Sanders (Eds.), Research in reading in content areas: First year report (pp. 29-39). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Reading and Language Arts Center. [12] Bean, T. W., Singer, H., Sorter, J., & Frazee, C. (1986). The effect of metacognitive instruction in outlining and graphic organizer construction on students’ comprehension in a tenth-grade world history class. Journal of Reading Behavior, 18, 153-169. [13] Berkowitz, S. J. (1986). Effects of instruction in text organization on sixth-grade students’ memory for expository reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 161-178. doi:10.2307/747843 [14] Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 463-494. doi:10.2307/3586295 [15] Boulineau, T., Force, C., Hagan-Burke, S., & Burke, M. D. (2004). Use of story-mapping to increase the story grammar text comprehension of elementary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27, 105-121. doi:10.2307/1593645 [16] Ca?as, A. J., Ford, K. M., Novak, J. D., Hayes, P., Reichherzer, T., & Suri, N. (2001). Online concept maps: Enhancing collaborative learning by using technology with concept maps. The Science Teacher, 68, 49-51. [17] Carrell, P., Pharis, B. G., & Liberto, J. C. (1989). Metacognitive strategy training for ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 647-673. doi:10.2307/3587536 [18] Chularut, P., & DeBacker, T. K. (2004). The in?uence of concept mapping on achievement, self-regulation, and self-e?cacy in students of English as a second language. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 248-263. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2003.09.001 [19] Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Chen, S. F. (2001) Learning through computer-based concept mapping with scaffolding aid. Journal of Computer Assistance Learning, 17, 21-33. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2001.00156.x [20] Chang, K. E., Sung, Y. T., & Chen, I. D. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. Journal of Experimental Education, 71, 5-23. doi:10.1080/00220970209602054 [21] Chmielewski, T., & Dansereau, D. F. (1998). Enhancing the recall of text: Knowledge mapping training promotes implicit transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 407-413. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.3.407 [22] Cohen, A. D. (2007). Coming to terms with language learner strategies: Surveying the experts. In A. D. Cohen, & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learning strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 29-45). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [23] Davis, Z. T. (1994). Effects of prereading story mapping on elementary readers’ comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 87, 353- 360. doi:10.1080/00220671.1994.9941266 [24] DeSimone, C, Schmid, R. F., & McEwen, L. A. (2001) Supporting the learning process with collaborative concept mapping using computer-based communication tools and processes. Education Research Evaluation, 7, 263-283. doi:10.1076/edre.7.2.263.3870 [25] Dexter, D. D., Park, Y. J., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). A meta-analytic review of graphic organizers and science instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities: Implications for the intermediate and secondary science classroom. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 26, 204-213. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2011.00341.x [26] DiCecco, V. M., & Gleason, M. M. (2002). Using graphic organizers to attain relational knowledge from expository text. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 306-320. doi:10.1177/00222194020350040201 [27] Dimino, J. A., Taylor, R. M., & Gersten, R. M. (1995). Synthesis of the research on story-grammar as a means to increase comprehension. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 11, 53-72. [28] Earle, R. A., & Barron, R. (1973). An approach for teaching vocabulary in content subjects. In H. L. Herber, & R. F. Barron (Eds.), Research in reading in content areas: Second year report (pp. 84-100). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Reading and Language Arts Center. [29] Estes, T. H., Mills, D. C., & Barron, R. F. (1969). Two methods of introducing students to a reading-learning task in two content subjects. In H. L. Herber, & P. L. Sanders (Eds.), Research in reading in content areas: First year report (pp. 40-48). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Reading and Language Arts Center,. [30] Gajria, M., Jitendra, A. K., Sood, S., & Sacks, G. (2007). Improving comprehension of expository text in students with LD: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 210-225. doi:10.1177/00222194070400030301 [31] Gardill, M. C., & Jitendra, K. A. (1999). Advanced story map instruction: Effects on the reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 33, 2-17. doi:10.1177/002246699903300101 [32] Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Williams, J. P., & Baker, S. (2001).Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71, 279- 320. doi:10.3102/00346543071002279 [33] Geva, E. (1983). Facilitating reading comprehension through flowcharting. Reading Research Quarterly, 18, 384-405. doi:10.2307/747375 [34] Graney, M. J. (1992). A framework for using text graphing. System, 20, 161-167. doi:10.1016/0346-251X(92)90022-U [35] Griffin, C. C., Malone, L. D., & Kameenui, E. J. (1995). Effects of graphic organizer instruction on fifth-grade students. Journal of Educational Research, 89, 98-107. doi:10.1080/00220671.1995.9941200 [36] Griffin, C. C., Simmons, D. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (1991). Investigating the effectiveness of graphic organizer instruction on the comprehension and recall of science content by students with learning disabilities. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 7, 355-376. [37] Griffin, C. C., & Tulbert, B. L. (1995). The effect of graphic organizers on students’ comprehension and recall of expository text: A review of the research and implications for practice. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 11, 73-89. doi:10.1080/1057356950110106 [38] Guri-Rozenblit, S. (1989). Effects of a tree diagram on students’ comprehension of main ideas in an expository text with multiple themes. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 236-247. doi:10.2307/747866 [39] Hall, R. H., Dansereau, D. E., & Skaggs, L. P. (1992). Knowledge maps and the presentation of related information domains. Journal of Experimental Education, 61, 5-18. doi:10.1080/00220973.1992.9943845 [40] Hartley, J., & Davies, I. K. (1976). Preinstructional strategies: The role of pretests, behavioral objectives, overviews and advance organizers. Review of Educational Research, 46, 239-265. doi:10.3102/00346543046002239 [41] Horton, S. C., Lovitt, T. C., & Bergerud, D. (1990). The effectiveness of graphic organizers for three classifications of secondary students in content area classes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 12-29. doi:10.1177/002221949002300107 [42] Idol, L. (1987). Group story mapping: A comprehension strategy for both skilled and unskilled readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 196-205. doi:10.1177/002221948702000401 [43] Idol, L., & Croll, V. (1987). Story mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 109, 214-230. doi:10.2307/1510494 [44] Iranmehr, A., Davari, H., & Erfanie, S. M. (2011). The application of organizers as an efficient technique in ESP textbooks development. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1, 417-422. doi:10.4304/tpls.1.4.417-422 [45] Jiang, X., & Grabe, W. (2007). Graphic organizers in reading instructtion: Research findings and issues. Reading in a Foreign Language, 19, 34-55. [46] Jones, B., Pierce, J., & Hunter, B. (1989). Teaching children to construct graphic representations. Educational Leadership, 46, 20-25. [47] Kang, S. (2004). Using visual organizers to enhance EFL instruction. JALT Journal, 58, 58-67. [48] Katayama, A. D., Robinson, D. H., Devaney, T., & Dubois, N. F. (1997). The interaction of study materials and spaced review on transfer and relational learning. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 411 280. [49] Kiewra, K. A., DuBois, N. F., Christian, D., & McShane, A. (1988). Providing study notes: A comparison of three types of notes for review. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 595-597. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.595 [50] Kiewra, K. A., DuBois, N. F., Christian, D., McShane, A., Meyerhoffer, M., & Roskelley, D. (1991). Note taking functions and techniques. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 240-245. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.2.240 [51] Kiewra, K. A., Kauffman, D. F., Robinson, D. H., Dubois, N. F., & Stanley, R. K. (1999). Supplementing floundering text with adjunct displays. Instructional Science, 27, 373-401. doi:10.1023/A:1003270723360 [52] Kim, A., Vaughn S., Wanzek J., & Wei, S. (2004). Graphic organizers and their effects on the reading comprehension of students with LD: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 105- 118. doi:10.1177/00222194040370020201 [53] Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [54] Koumy, E., & Salam, A. (1999). E?ects of three semantic mapping strategies on EFL students reading comprehension. ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED. 435193. [55] McCagg, E. C., & Dansereau, D. F. (1991). A convergent paradigm for examining knowledge mapping as a learning and recall strategy. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 317-324. doi:10.1080/00220671.1991.9941812 [56] Moore, D. W., & Readence, J. E. (1984). A quantitative and qualitative review of graphic organizer research. Journal of Educational Research, 78, 11-17. [57] Nesbit, J. C., & Adesope, O. O. (2006). Learning with concept and knowledge maps: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 76, 413-448. doi:10.3102/00346543076003413 [58] Novak, J. D. (1990). Concept mapping: A useful tool for science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27, 937-949. doi:10.1002/tea.3660271003 [59] Novak, J. D. (1991). Clarify with concept maps: A tool for students and teachers alike. Science Teacher, 58, 45-49. [60] Novak, J. D., & Ca?as, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. URL (Last checked 13 December 2011). http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf [61] Novak, J. D., & Musonda, D. (1991). A twelve-year longitudinal study of science concept learning. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 117-153. doi:10.3102/00028312028001117 [62] O’Donnell, A. M., Dansereau, D. F., & Hall, R. H. (2002). Knowledge maps as scaffolds for cognitive processing. Educational Psychology Review, 14, 71-86. doi:10.1023/A:1013132527007 [63] Oliver, K. (2009). An investigation of concept mapping to improve the reading comprehension of science texts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18, 402-414. doi:10.1007/s10956-009-9157-3 [64] Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117-175. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0102_1 [65] Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P. B., Gaskins, I., Schuder, T., Bergman, J. L., Almasi, J., & Brown, B. (1992). Beyond direct explanation: Transactional instruction of reading comprehension strategies. Elementary School Journal, 92, 513-555. doi:10.1086/461705 [66] Rice, G. E. (1994). Need for explanations in graphic organizer research. Reading Psychology, 15, 39-67. doi:10.1080/0270271940150103 [67] Robinson, D. H., Katayama, A. D., Beth, A., Odom, S., Hsieh, Y., & Vanderveen, A. (2006). Increasing text comprehension and graphic note taking using a partial graphic organizer. Journal of Educational Research, 100, 103-111. doi:10.3200/JOER.100.2.103-111 [68] Robinson, D. H., & Kiewra, K. A. (1995). Visual argument: Graphic organizers are superior to outlines in improving learning from text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 455-467. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.87.3.455 [69] Robinson, D. H., & Schraw, G. (1994). Computational efficiency through visual argument: Do graphic organizers communicate relations in text too effectively. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 399-415. doi:10.1006/ceps.1994.1029 [70] Robinson, D. H., & Skinner, C. H. (1996). Why graphic organizers facilitate search processes: Fewer words or computationally effective indexing? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 161-180. doi:10.1006/ceps.1996.0014 [71] Schmid, R. F., & Telaro, G. (1990). Concept mapping as an instructional strategy for high school biology. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 78-85. [72] Schwartz, S. H., & Fattaleh, D. L. (1972). Representation in deductive problem solving: The matrix. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 95, 343-348. doi:10.1037/h0033669 [73] Simmons, D. C., Griffin, C. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (1988). Effects of teacher-constructed preand post-graphic organizer instruction on sixth-grade science students’ comprehension and recall. Journal of Educational Research, 82, 15-21. [74] Singer, H., & Donlan, D. (1983). Active comprehension: Problem-solving schema with question generation for comprehension of complex short stories. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 166-185. doi:10.2307/747482 [75] Stull, A. T., & Mayer, R. E. (2007). Learning by doing versus learning by viewing: Three experimental comparisons of learner-generated versus author-provided graphic organizers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 808-820. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.808 [76] Suzuki, A., Sato, T., & Awazu, S. (2008). Graphic display of linguistic information in English as a Foreign Language reading. TESOL Quarterly, 42, 591-616. [77] Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-296. doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205 [78] Tang, G. (1992). The effect of graphic representation of knowledge structures on ESL reading comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 177-195. doi:10.1017/S0272263100010810 [79] Vallecorsa, A. L., & de Bettencourt, L. U. (1997). Using a mapping procedure to teach reading and writing to middle grade students with learning disabilities. Education & Treatment of Children, 20, 173-189. [80] Vaughn, S., & Edmonds, M. (2006). Reading comprehension for older readers. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 131-137. doi:10.1177/10534512060410030101 [81] Vekiri, I. (2002). What is the value of graphical displays in learning? Educational Psychology Review, 14, 261-312. doi:10.1023/A:1016064429161 [82] Venn, J. (1880). On the diagrammatic and mechanical representation of propositions and reasonings. Dublin Pholosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 9, 1-18.