Chemical Characterization of Tomato Industry Wastewater, Florida, United States
Affiliation(s)
Soil and Water Quality Laboratory, Gulf Coast Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Wimauma, Florida, USA.
Soil and Water Quality Laboratory, Gulf Coast Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Wimauma, Florida, USA.
ABSTRACT
Tomato packers often struggle to find ways to reuse the large volumes of wastewater generated during the tomato cleaning and sanitizing processes due to high transportation costs for off-site disposal and strict surface water discharge regulations in Florida. Information about the composition of tomato packinghouse wastewater and the likely sources of major wastewater constituents might provide insights to develop environmentally sustainable practices for wastewater reuse. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical composition of wastewater generated in tomato packinghouses. The wastewater samples were collected for 6 to 8 hours from dump tanks of two representative packinghouses at 30 minute intervals after start-up of packing operations during May-June 2009. Results showed that wastewater had high electrical conductivity (1.3 - 2.8 dS·m–1) and chloride (255 - 1125 mg·L–1) due to the use of chlorine as a sanitizer in the packinghouses. Concentrations of total phosphorus (P, 2.8 - 5.7 mg·L–1) and copper (Cu, 1.9 - 2.2 mg·L–1) in wastewater were elevated due to tomato cleaning and sanitizing. To reduce P and Cu concentrations, treatment or blending of wastewater may be needed before discharging wastewater to surface waters. Concentrations of P, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, and manganese were much higher in packinghouse 1 as compared to packinghouse 2 wastewater, probably due to the greater contact time of tomatoes with the dump tank water. Whereas concentrations of Cu were similar in both packinghouses wastewater. Greater concentrations of chemical constituents in the wastewater suggest that residues of pesticides, insecticides, and/or foliar-applied micronutrients on tomatoes may be the likely external sources of most constituents (especially P, Cu, and Zn) in wastewater.
Tomato packers often struggle to find ways to reuse the large volumes of wastewater generated during the tomato cleaning and sanitizing processes due to high transportation costs for off-site disposal and strict surface water discharge regulations in Florida. Information about the composition of tomato packinghouse wastewater and the likely sources of major wastewater constituents might provide insights to develop environmentally sustainable practices for wastewater reuse. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical composition of wastewater generated in tomato packinghouses. The wastewater samples were collected for 6 to 8 hours from dump tanks of two representative packinghouses at 30 minute intervals after start-up of packing operations during May-June 2009. Results showed that wastewater had high electrical conductivity (1.3 - 2.8 dS·m–1) and chloride (255 - 1125 mg·L–1) due to the use of chlorine as a sanitizer in the packinghouses. Concentrations of total phosphorus (P, 2.8 - 5.7 mg·L–1) and copper (Cu, 1.9 - 2.2 mg·L–1) in wastewater were elevated due to tomato cleaning and sanitizing. To reduce P and Cu concentrations, treatment or blending of wastewater may be needed before discharging wastewater to surface waters. Concentrations of P, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, and manganese were much higher in packinghouse 1 as compared to packinghouse 2 wastewater, probably due to the greater contact time of tomatoes with the dump tank water. Whereas concentrations of Cu were similar in both packinghouses wastewater. Greater concentrations of chemical constituents in the wastewater suggest that residues of pesticides, insecticides, and/or foliar-applied micronutrients on tomatoes may be the likely external sources of most constituents (especially P, Cu, and Zn) in wastewater.
Cite this paper
M. Chahal, G. Toor and B. Santos, "Chemical Characterization of Tomato Industry Wastewater, Florida, United States," Journal of Water Resource and Protection, Vol. 4 No. 3, 2012, pp. 107-114. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2012.43013.
M. Chahal, G. Toor and B. Santos, "Chemical Characterization of Tomato Industry Wastewater, Florida, United States," Journal of Water Resource and Protection, Vol. 4 No. 3, 2012, pp. 107-114. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2012.43013.
References
[1] FDEP, “General Facts and Statistics about Wastewater in Florida,” 12 June 2011. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/wastewater/facts.htm [2] G. A. O’Connor, H. A. Elliott and R.K. Bastian, “Degraded Water Reuse: An Overview,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 37, Suppl. 5, 2008, pp. S157- S168. [3] California League of Food Processing, “Manual of Good Practice for Land Application of Food Processing/Rinse Water,” Davis, CA, 2007. [4] A. A. Szogi and M. B. Vanotti, “Removal of Phosphorus from Livestock Effluents,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2009, pp. 576-586. doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0641 [5] G. Firfilionis, et al., “The Removal of Trace Metals at the Wastewater Treatment Plant of Psyttalia,” Mediterranean Marine Science, Vol. 5/1, 2004, pp. 71-81. [6] Florida Tomato Committee, “Options for Utilization of Tomato Packinghouse Solid Waste and Water,” In: Critical Issues in Tomato Production in Florida—A Special Research Report, Florida Tomato Committee and University of Florida/IFAS, 2007. [7] Florida Administrative Weekly, “Florida Administrative Weekly and Florida Administrative Code 62-302.530,” 2006. [8] FDEP, “Water Rules by Program Area: Wastewater,” 12 June 2011, Cited 16 August 2010. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/rulesprog.htm#ww [9] K. L. Rule, et al., “Diffuse Sources of Heavy Metals Entering an Urban Wastewater Catchment,” Chemosphere, Vol. 63, No. 1, 2006, pp. 64-72. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.07.052 [10] P. Crawford, et al., “Corrosion of a Stainless Steel Chemical Hood,” Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1998, pp. 53-56. doi:10.1016/S1350-6307(97)00032-0 [11] T. Eliades, et al., “Characterization and Cytotoxicity of Ions Released from Stainless Steel and Nickel-Titanium Orthodontic Alloys,” American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Vol. 125, No. 1, 2004, pp. 24-29. doi:10.1016/j.ajodo.2003.09.009 [12] H. F. Bohner and R. L. Bradley, “Corrosivity of Chlorine Dioxide Used as Sanitizer in Ultrafiltration Systems,” Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. 74, No. 10, 1991, pp. 3348-3352. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(91)78523-8 [13] S. M. Olson and E. Simonne, “Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida,” IFAS/Extension, University of Florida, 2009, pp. 291-313. [14] J. A. Bartz, S. A. Sargent and M. Mahovic, “Guide to Identifying and Controlling Post Harvest Tomato Diseases in Florida,” IFAS/extension HS 866, University of Florida, 2009. [15] R. Maxfield and B. Mindak, “Environmental Protection Agency Method 200.7 Trace Metals by ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma),” US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/4-85/051 (NTIS PB85248656), 1985, Cited 12 June 2011. http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_Report.cfm?dirEntryID=47183 [16] North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, “Notice of Naming and Release of ‘Plum Crimson’ Hybrid Tomato,” 2002, Cited 13 April 2010. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/fletcher/programs/tomato/releases/release-notices/release-Plum-Crimson.pdf [17] J. W. Scott, S. M. Olson and J. A. Bartz, “Tribeca’ Hybrid Tomato; Fla. 8124C and Fla. 8249 Breeding Lines,” HortScience, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2009, pp. 471-473. [18] J. A. Bonilla and G. S. Toor, “Assessment of Microbes in Tomato Packinghouses,” Florida Tomato Institute Proceedings, 12 June 2011, pp. 8-10. http://www.hos.ufl.edu/vegetarian/09/Sep/Tomato%20Proceedings%202009.pdf [19] T. J. Stevens and R. L. Kilmer, “A Descriptive and Comparative Analysis of Pesticide Residues Found in Florida Tomatoes and Strawberries,” IFAS/Ext BUL331, University of Florida, 2009. [20] R. S. Ayers and D. W. Westcot, “Water Quality for Agriculture,” FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev.1, Rome, 1989. [21] M. Y. Fukayama, et al., “Reactions of Aqueous Chlorine and Chlorine Dioxide with Model Food Compounds,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 69, 1986, pp. 267-274. doi:10.1289/ehp.8669267 [22] S. A. Bradford, et al., “Reuse of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation Wastewater on Agricultural Lands,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 37, 2008, pp. S97-S115. doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0393 [23] H. Monclús, et al., “Biological Nutrient Removal in an MBR Treating Municipal Wastewater with Special Focus on Biological Phosphorus Removal,” Bioresource Technology, Vol. 101, No. 11, 2010, pp. 3984-3991. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.01.038 [24] F. Zvomuya, C. J. Rosen and S. C. Gupta, “Phosphorus Sequestration by Chemical Amendments to Reduce Leaching from Wastewater Applications,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2006, pp. 207-215. doi:10.2134/jeq2005.0172 [25] EPA, “Technical Support Document for U.S. EPA’s Final Rule for Numeric Criteria for Nitrogen/Phosphorus Pollution in Florida’s Inland Surface Fresh Waters,” 2010. http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/upload/floridatsd1.pdf [26] T. W. Biggs and B. Jiang, “Soil Salinity and Exchangeable Cations in a Wastewater Irrigated Area, India,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 38, No. 3, 2009, pp. 887-896. doi:10.2134/jeq2008.0247 [27] J. M. Ebeling, C. F. Welsh and K. L. Rishel, “Performance Evaluation of an Inclined Belt Filter Using Coagulation/Flocculation Aids for the Removal of Suspended Solids and Phosphorus from Microscreen Backwash Effluent,” Aquacultural Engineering, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2006, pp. 61-77. doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2005.08.006 [28] C. Kang, et al., “Process Development for the Removal of Copper from Wastewater Using Ferric/Limestone Treatment,” Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 3, 2003, pp. 482-486. doi:10.1007/BF02705552 [29] M. K. Chahal, et al., “Effect of Tomato Packinghouse Wastewater Properties on Phosphorus and Cation Leaching in a Spodosol,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 40, 2011, pp. 999-1009. doi:10.2134/jeq2010.0369 [30] FDEP, “Permit for Disposal of Tomato Washwater,” Industrial Wastewater General/Generic Permits, 2009, Cited 16 August 2010. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/legal/Rules/wastewater/62-660.pdf [31] D. Z. Haman, “Irrigating with High Salinity Water,” IFAS/Extension BUL322, University of Florida, Floria, 2009.
[1] FDEP, “General Facts and Statistics about Wastewater in Florida,” 12 June 2011. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/wastewater/facts.htm [2] G. A. O’Connor, H. A. Elliott and R.K. Bastian, “Degraded Water Reuse: An Overview,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 37, Suppl. 5, 2008, pp. S157- S168. [3] California League of Food Processing, “Manual of Good Practice for Land Application of Food Processing/Rinse Water,” Davis, CA, 2007. [4] A. A. Szogi and M. B. Vanotti, “Removal of Phosphorus from Livestock Effluents,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2009, pp. 576-586. doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0641 [5] G. Firfilionis, et al., “The Removal of Trace Metals at the Wastewater Treatment Plant of Psyttalia,” Mediterranean Marine Science, Vol. 5/1, 2004, pp. 71-81. [6] Florida Tomato Committee, “Options for Utilization of Tomato Packinghouse Solid Waste and Water,” In: Critical Issues in Tomato Production in Florida—A Special Research Report, Florida Tomato Committee and University of Florida/IFAS, 2007. [7] Florida Administrative Weekly, “Florida Administrative Weekly and Florida Administrative Code 62-302.530,” 2006. [8] FDEP, “Water Rules by Program Area: Wastewater,” 12 June 2011, Cited 16 August 2010. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/rulesprog.htm#ww [9] K. L. Rule, et al., “Diffuse Sources of Heavy Metals Entering an Urban Wastewater Catchment,” Chemosphere, Vol. 63, No. 1, 2006, pp. 64-72. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.07.052 [10] P. Crawford, et al., “Corrosion of a Stainless Steel Chemical Hood,” Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1998, pp. 53-56. doi:10.1016/S1350-6307(97)00032-0 [11] T. Eliades, et al., “Characterization and Cytotoxicity of Ions Released from Stainless Steel and Nickel-Titanium Orthodontic Alloys,” American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Vol. 125, No. 1, 2004, pp. 24-29. doi:10.1016/j.ajodo.2003.09.009 [12] H. F. Bohner and R. L. Bradley, “Corrosivity of Chlorine Dioxide Used as Sanitizer in Ultrafiltration Systems,” Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. 74, No. 10, 1991, pp. 3348-3352. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(91)78523-8 [13] S. M. Olson and E. Simonne, “Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida,” IFAS/Extension, University of Florida, 2009, pp. 291-313. [14] J. A. Bartz, S. A. Sargent and M. Mahovic, “Guide to Identifying and Controlling Post Harvest Tomato Diseases in Florida,” IFAS/extension HS 866, University of Florida, 2009. [15] R. Maxfield and B. Mindak, “Environmental Protection Agency Method 200.7 Trace Metals by ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma),” US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/4-85/051 (NTIS PB85248656), 1985, Cited 12 June 2011. http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_Report.cfm?dirEntryID=47183 [16] North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, “Notice of Naming and Release of ‘Plum Crimson’ Hybrid Tomato,” 2002, Cited 13 April 2010. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/fletcher/programs/tomato/releases/release-notices/release-Plum-Crimson.pdf [17] J. W. Scott, S. M. Olson and J. A. Bartz, “Tribeca’ Hybrid Tomato; Fla. 8124C and Fla. 8249 Breeding Lines,” HortScience, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2009, pp. 471-473. [18] J. A. Bonilla and G. S. Toor, “Assessment of Microbes in Tomato Packinghouses,” Florida Tomato Institute Proceedings, 12 June 2011, pp. 8-10. http://www.hos.ufl.edu/vegetarian/09/Sep/Tomato%20Proceedings%202009.pdf [19] T. J. Stevens and R. L. Kilmer, “A Descriptive and Comparative Analysis of Pesticide Residues Found in Florida Tomatoes and Strawberries,” IFAS/Ext BUL331, University of Florida, 2009. [20] R. S. Ayers and D. W. Westcot, “Water Quality for Agriculture,” FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev.1, Rome, 1989. [21] M. Y. Fukayama, et al., “Reactions of Aqueous Chlorine and Chlorine Dioxide with Model Food Compounds,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 69, 1986, pp. 267-274. doi:10.1289/ehp.8669267 [22] S. A. Bradford, et al., “Reuse of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation Wastewater on Agricultural Lands,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 37, 2008, pp. S97-S115. doi:10.2134/jeq2007.0393 [23] H. Monclús, et al., “Biological Nutrient Removal in an MBR Treating Municipal Wastewater with Special Focus on Biological Phosphorus Removal,” Bioresource Technology, Vol. 101, No. 11, 2010, pp. 3984-3991. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.01.038 [24] F. Zvomuya, C. J. Rosen and S. C. Gupta, “Phosphorus Sequestration by Chemical Amendments to Reduce Leaching from Wastewater Applications,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2006, pp. 207-215. doi:10.2134/jeq2005.0172 [25] EPA, “Technical Support Document for U.S. EPA’s Final Rule for Numeric Criteria for Nitrogen/Phosphorus Pollution in Florida’s Inland Surface Fresh Waters,” 2010. http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/upload/floridatsd1.pdf [26] T. W. Biggs and B. Jiang, “Soil Salinity and Exchangeable Cations in a Wastewater Irrigated Area, India,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 38, No. 3, 2009, pp. 887-896. doi:10.2134/jeq2008.0247 [27] J. M. Ebeling, C. F. Welsh and K. L. Rishel, “Performance Evaluation of an Inclined Belt Filter Using Coagulation/Flocculation Aids for the Removal of Suspended Solids and Phosphorus from Microscreen Backwash Effluent,” Aquacultural Engineering, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2006, pp. 61-77. doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2005.08.006 [28] C. Kang, et al., “Process Development for the Removal of Copper from Wastewater Using Ferric/Limestone Treatment,” Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 3, 2003, pp. 482-486. doi:10.1007/BF02705552 [29] M. K. Chahal, et al., “Effect of Tomato Packinghouse Wastewater Properties on Phosphorus and Cation Leaching in a Spodosol,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 40, 2011, pp. 999-1009. doi:10.2134/jeq2010.0369 [30] FDEP, “Permit for Disposal of Tomato Washwater,” Industrial Wastewater General/Generic Permits, 2009, Cited 16 August 2010. http://www.dep.state.fl.us/legal/Rules/wastewater/62-660.pdf [31] D. Z. Haman, “Irrigating with High Salinity Water,” IFAS/Extension BUL322, University of Florida, Floria, 2009.