Dynamic Activity-Related Incentives for Physical Activity
ABSTRACT
The present studies adopted the theoretical framework of activity- and purpose-related incentives (Rheinberg, 2008) to explain the maintenance of physical activity. We hypothesized that activity-related incentives (e.g., “fun”) increase more than purpose-related incentives (e.g., “health”) between the initiation and maintenance phase of physical activity. Additionally, change in activity-related incentives was hypothesized to be a better predictor of maintenance of physical activity than change in purpose-related incentives. Two correlative field studies with rehabilitation patients (Study 1) and Nordic Walkers (Study 2) were conducted to test the hypotheses. Participants’ incentives of physical activity were measured at the beginning of exercising and two weeks (Study 1; T2) and three months (Study 2; T2) later. At T2, participants were asked for their current physical activity. Both studies showed a greater change of activity-related incentives than purpose-related incentives. Furthermore, change in activity-related incentives was more predictive of the maintenance of physical activity than change in purpose-related incentives. The results showed the important role of activity-related incentives in maintenance of physical activity. The theoretical contribution to physical activity maintenance research and practical implications for health promotion programs were discussed.
The present studies adopted the theoretical framework of activity- and purpose-related incentives (Rheinberg, 2008) to explain the maintenance of physical activity. We hypothesized that activity-related incentives (e.g., “fun”) increase more than purpose-related incentives (e.g., “health”) between the initiation and maintenance phase of physical activity. Additionally, change in activity-related incentives was hypothesized to be a better predictor of maintenance of physical activity than change in purpose-related incentives. Two correlative field studies with rehabilitation patients (Study 1) and Nordic Walkers (Study 2) were conducted to test the hypotheses. Participants’ incentives of physical activity were measured at the beginning of exercising and two weeks (Study 1; T2) and three months (Study 2; T2) later. At T2, participants were asked for their current physical activity. Both studies showed a greater change of activity-related incentives than purpose-related incentives. Furthermore, change in activity-related incentives was more predictive of the maintenance of physical activity than change in purpose-related incentives. The results showed the important role of activity-related incentives in maintenance of physical activity. The theoretical contribution to physical activity maintenance research and practical implications for health promotion programs were discussed.
Cite this paper
Schuler, J. & Brunner, S. (2012). Dynamic Activity-Related Incentives for Physical Activity. Advances in Physical Education, 2, 1-9. doi: 10.4236/ape.2012.21001.
Schuler, J. & Brunner, S. (2012). Dynamic Activity-Related Incentives for Physical Activity. Advances in Physical Education, 2, 1-9. doi: 10.4236/ape.2012.21001.
References
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[1] Anderson, E. S., Wojcik, J. R., Winett, R. A., & Williams, D. M. (2006). Social-cognitive determinants of physical activity: The influence of social support, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation among participants in a church-based health promotion study. Health Psychology, 25, 510-520. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.25.4.510 [2] Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behaviour. Psychological Review, 64, 359-372. doi:10.1037/h0043445 [3] Beckman, J., & Heckhausen, H. (2008). Motivation as a function of expectancy and incentives. In J. Heckhausen, & H. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation and action (pp. 99-136). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [4] Blair, S. N., & Connelly, J. C. (1996). How much exercise should we do? The case for moderate amounts and intensities of exercise. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 67, 193-205. [5] Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. [6] Csikszentmihalyi, M. & Rathunde, K. (1992). The measurement of flow in everyday live: Toward a theory of emergent motivation. In J. E. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 57-97). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. [7] Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105- 115. doi:10.1037/h0030644 [8] Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum. [9] Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 [10] Dishman, R. K. (1994). Advances in exercise adherence. Champaign: Human Kinetics. [11] Duda, J. L. (1989). Goal perspectives and behavior in sport and exercise settings. In M. L. Maehr, & C. Ames (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Motivation enhancing environments. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. [12] Duda, J. L., & Tappe, M. K. (1989). The personal incentives for exercise questionnaire: Preliminary development. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 68, 1122. doi:10.2466/pms.1989.68.3c.1122 [13] Heckhausen, J. & Heckhausen, H. (2008). Motivation and action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511499821 [14] Heckhausen, H., & Rheinberg, F. (1980). Lernmotivation im Unterricht, erneut betrachtet [Learning motivation in the classroom reconsidered]. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 8, 7-47. [15] Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (1985). Action control: From cognition to behavior. Heidelberg, Berlin, New York: Springer. [16] Liberman, N. & Trope, Y. (1998). The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future decisions: A test of temporal construal theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 5-18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.5 [17] Markland, D. & Hardy, L. (1993). The exercise motivations inventory: Preliminary development and validity of a measure of individuals’ reasons for participation in regular physical exercise. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 289-296. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90219-S [18] Markland, D., & Ingledew, D. K. (2007). Exercise participation motives. In M. S. Hagger, & M. L. D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport. Human Kinetics. [19] McAuley, E., Wraith, S., & Duncan, T. E. (1991). Self-efficacy, perceptions of success, and intrinsic motivation for exercise. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 139-155. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00493.x [20] McClelland, D. C. (1985). Human motivation. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. [21] Pennington, G. L., & Roese, N. J. (2003). Regulatory focus and temporal distance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 563-576. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00058-1 [22] Prochaska, J. O. & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 390-395. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.51.3.390 [23] Prochaska, J. O. & DiClemente, C. C. (1992). Toward a comprehensive model of change. In W. R. Miller, & N. Heather (Eds.), Treating addictive behaviors: Process of change (pp. 3-27). New York: Plenum Press. [24] Prochaska, J. O., Velicer, W. F., Rossi, J. S., Goldstein, M. G., Marcus, B. H., Rakowski, W., Fiore, C., Harlow, L. L., Redding, C. A., Rosenbloom, D., & Rossi, S. R. (1994). Stages of change and decisional balance for 12 problem behaviours. Health Psychology, 13, 39-46. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.13.1.39 [25] Rheinberg, F. (2008). Intrinsic motivation and flow-experience. In H. Heckhausen, & J. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation and action (pp. 323-348). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511499821.014 [26] Rothman, A. J. (2000). Toward a theory-based analysis of behavioural maintenance. Health Psychology, 19, 64-69. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.19.Suppl1.64 [27] Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The darker and brighter sides of human existence: Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 319-338. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_03 [28] Sansone, C. & Smith, J. L. (2000). Interest and self-regulation: The relation between having to and wanting to. In C. Sansone, & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (343-372). San Diego: Academic Press. [29] Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Schmidt, G. W., Simons, J. P., & Keeler, B. (1993). An introduction of the sport commitment model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 1-15. [30] Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1987). Dispositional optimism and physical well-being: The influence of generalized outcome expectancies on health. Journal of Personality, 55, 169-210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00434.x [31] Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of health behaviours: Theoretical approaches and a new model. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought control of action (pp. 217-243). Washington DC: Hemisphere. [32] Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2000). The structure and substance of intrinsic motivation. In C. Sansone, & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (105-127). San Diego: Academic Press. [33] Shanks, D. R., & Dickinson, A. (1991). Instrumental judgement and performance under enhancement in action-outcome contingency and contiguity. Memory & Cognition, 19, 353-360. doi:10.3758/BF03197139 [34] Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behaviour of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. [35] Sniehotta, F. F., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Bridging the intention-behaviour gap: Planning, self-efficacy, and action control in the adoption and maintenance of physical exercise. Psychology & Health, 20, 143-160. doi:10.1080/08870440512331317670 [36] Tarpy, R. M. & Sawabini, F. L. (1974). Reinforcement delay: A selective review of the last decades. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 984-997. doi:10.1037/h0037428 [37] Trope, Y. & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110, 403-421. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.3.403 [38] Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. [39] Williams, D. M., Anderson, E. S., & Winett, R. A. (2005). Review of outcome expectancies in physical activity research. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 70-79. doi:10.1207/s15324796abm2901_10 [40] Wing, R. R. (2000). Cross-cutting themes in maintenance of behaviour change. Health Psychology, 19, 84-88. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.19.Suppl1.84