Factors Influencing Work Efficiency in China
ABSTRACT
The preferred methods of conflict handling are largely sociologically prescribed in China, but those methods could reduce efficiency in the workplace. This study examined factors that could influence the efficiency of working people since efficiency is important to the successful operation of organizations. Some relatively unexplored personality variables, i.e., Creativity and Resilience, Esteem from Others, Attribution for Success (to Self), and Attribution for Success (to Others), and some more usual variables, i.e., Conscientiousness, Self-Confidence, and Organizational Socialization (Training, Understanding, Coworker Support, Future Prospects), were tested for their expected positive relationships to three dependent variables, i.e., Work Efficiency, Conflict Handling-Avoidance, and Conflict Handling-Compromising. Questionnaire data from 192 Chinese employees in Mainland China were analyzed to assess these relationships. Correlation results indicated that all variables (except Future Prospects and Attribution to Others) were positively related to Work Efficiency, and most were positively related to both Conflict Handling-Avoidance, and Conflict Handling-Compromising. Results for the relationships of the personality and social variables to conflict handling and work efficiency are discussed in terms of Chinese culture.
The preferred methods of conflict handling are largely sociologically prescribed in China, but those methods could reduce efficiency in the workplace. This study examined factors that could influence the efficiency of working people since efficiency is important to the successful operation of organizations. Some relatively unexplored personality variables, i.e., Creativity and Resilience, Esteem from Others, Attribution for Success (to Self), and Attribution for Success (to Others), and some more usual variables, i.e., Conscientiousness, Self-Confidence, and Organizational Socialization (Training, Understanding, Coworker Support, Future Prospects), were tested for their expected positive relationships to three dependent variables, i.e., Work Efficiency, Conflict Handling-Avoidance, and Conflict Handling-Compromising. Questionnaire data from 192 Chinese employees in Mainland China were analyzed to assess these relationships. Correlation results indicated that all variables (except Future Prospects and Attribution to Others) were positively related to Work Efficiency, and most were positively related to both Conflict Handling-Avoidance, and Conflict Handling-Compromising. Results for the relationships of the personality and social variables to conflict handling and work efficiency are discussed in terms of Chinese culture.
Cite this paper
nullWei, W. & Taormina, R. (2011). Factors Influencing Work Efficiency in China. Advances in Applied Sociology, 1, 56-63. doi: 10.4236/aasoci.2011.11005.
nullWei, W. & Taormina, R. (2011). Factors Influencing Work Efficiency in China. Advances in Applied Sociology, 1, 56-63. doi: 10.4236/aasoci.2011.11005.
References
[1] Amabile, T. M. (1988). A model of creativity and innovation in organizations. In B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (pp. 123-167). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. [2] Antonioni, D. (1998). Relationship between the Big Five personality factors and conflict management styles. International Journal of Conflict Management, 9, 336-355. doi:10.1108/eb022814 [3] Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unravelling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [4] Barki, H., & Hartwick, J. (2004). Conceptualizing the construct of interpersonal conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 15, 216-244. doi:10.1108/eb022913 [5] Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x [6] Blake, R. R., & Moutin, J. S. (1964). The managerial grid. Houston, TX: Gulf. [7] Bernardin, H. J., & Beatty, R. W. (1984). Performance appraisal: Assessing human behavior at work. Boston: Kent. [8] Chinese Culture Connection (1987). Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 143-164. doi:10.1177/0022002187018002002 [9] Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155- 159. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 [10] Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18, 76-82. doi:10.1002/da.10113 [11] Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO personality inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. [12] Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO-PI-R professional inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. [13] Day, R. C., & Hamblin, R. L. (1964). Some effects of close and punitive styles of supervision. The American Journal of Sociology, 69, 499-510. doi:10.1086/223653 [14] Gao, J. H. & Taormina, R. J. (2002). Performance appraisal in Zhuhai and Macao. Proceedings of the 7th International Human Resource Management Conference. Limerick. [15] Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). Perceived control of anxiety and its relationship to self-confidence and performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73, 87-97. [16] Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley. doi:10.1037/10628-000 [17] Hirschfeld, R. M. A., Klerman, G. L., Gough, H. G., Barrett, J., Korchin, S. J., & Chodoff, P. (1977). A measure of interpersonal dependency. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41, 610-618. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4106_6 [18] Hofstee, W. K., de Raad, B., & Goldberg, L. R. (1992). Integration of the Big Five and circumplex approaches to trait structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 146-163. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.1.146 [19] Hwang, K. K. (1987). Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 944-974. doi:10.1086/228588 [20] Jacelon, C. S. (1997). The trait and process of resilience. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 123-129. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.1997025123.x [21] Kirkbride, P. S., Tang, S. F., & Westwood, R. I. (1991). Chinese conflict preferences and negotiating behavior: Cultural and psychological influences. Organization Studies, 12, 365-386. doi:10.1177/017084069101200302 [22] Kolb, J. A. (1999). The effect of gender role, attitude toward leadership and self-confidence on leader emergence: Implications for leadership development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10, 305- 320. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920100403 [23] Lane, A. M., Sewell, D. F., Terry, P. C., Bartram, D., & Nesti, M. S. (1999). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. Journal of Sports Science, 17, 505-512. doi:10.1080/026404199365812 [24] Lang, A., Goulet, C., & Amsel, R. (2003). Lang and Goulet hardiness scale: Development and testing on bereaved parents following the death of their fetus/infant. Death Studies, 27, 851-880. doi:10.1080/716100345 [25] Lee, D. M. S. (1986) Academic achievement, task characteristics, and first job performance of young engineers. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, EM-33, 127-133. [26] Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO personality inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 329-358. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_8 [27] Liu, J., Fu, P., & Liu, S. (2009). Conflicts in top management teams and team/firm outcomes: The moderating effects of conflict-handling approaches. International Journal of Conflict Management, 20, 228- 250. doi:10.1108/10444060910974867 [28] Lu, L., Kao, S. F., Siu, O. L., & Lu, C. Q. (2010). Work stressors, Chinese coping strategies, and job performance in Greater China. International Journal of Psychology, 45, 294-302. doi:10.1080/00207591003682027 [29] Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. doi:10.1037/h0054346 [30] Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. Oxford: Viking. [31] Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley. [32] Maxham, J. G., Netemeyer, R. G., & Lichtenstein, D. R. (2008). The retail value chain: Linking employee perceptions to employee performance, customer evaluations, and store performance. Marketing Science, 27, 147-167. doi:10.1287/mksc.1070.0282 [33] McCarty, P. A. (1986). Effects of feedback on the self-confidence of men and women. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 840-847. doi:10.2307/255950 [34] Merriam-Webster Dictionary (nd). http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ [35] Oldham G. R., & Cummings, A. (1996). Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 607-634. doi:10.2307/256657 [36] Oxford English Dictionary (nd). [37] http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/163619 [38] Parker, G., Cowen, E., Work, W., & Wyman, P. (1990). Test correlates of stress resilience among urban school children. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 11, 19-35. doi:10.1007/BF01324859 [39] Paul, R. J. (1967). Increasing the work efficiency of the service employee. Journal of Small Business Management, 5, 9-13. [40] Pierce, J. L., & Gardner, D. G. (2004). Self-esteem within the work and organizational context: A review of the organization-based self-esteem literature. Journal of Management, 30, 591-622. doi:10.1016/j.jm.2003.10.001 [41] Rahim, M. A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 368-376. doi:10.2307/255985 [42] Rahim, M. A., Magner, N. R., & Shapiro, D. L. (2000). Do justice perceptions influence styles of handling conflict with supervisors? What justice perceptions, precisely? International Journal of Conflict Management, 11, 9-31. doi:10.1108/eb022833 [43] Rasulzada, F., & Dackert, I. (2009). Organizational creativity and innovation in relation to psychological well-being and organizational factors. Creativity Research Journal, 21, 191-198. doi:10.1080/10400410902855283 [44] Reio, T. G., & Wiswell, A. (2000). Field investigation of the relationship among adult curiosity, workplace learning, and job performance. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11, 5-30. doi:10.1002/1532-1096(200021)11:1<5::AID-HRDQ2>3.0.CO;2-A [45] Simonton, D. K. (1986). Presidential personality: Biographical use of the Gough Adjective Check List. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 149-160. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.149 [46] Taormina, R. J. (1997). Organizational Socialization: A multidomain, continuous process model. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 5, 29-47. doi:10.1111/1468-2389.00043 [47] Taormina, R. J. (2004). Convergent validation of two measures of organizational socialization. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 76-94. doi:10.1080/0958519032000157357 [48] Taormina, R. J. & Gao, J. H. (2009). Identifying acceptable performance appraisal criteria: An international perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 47, 102-125. doi:10.1177/1038411108099292 [49] Taormina, R. J. & Gao, J. H. (2010). A research model for guanxi behavior: Antecedents, measures, and outcomes of Chinese social networking. Social Science Research, 39, 1195-1212. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.07.003 [50] Taylor, F. W. (1911). The principles of scientific management. New York: Harper Bros. [51] Williams, S. (2001). Increasing employees’ creativity by training their managers. Industrial and Commercial Training, 33, 63-68. doi:10.1108/00197850110385642 [52] Wolf, J. R. (1989). Human resource management. Psychiatric Annals, 19, 432-434. [53] Yang, K. S. (1995). Chinese social orientation: An integrative analysis. In T. Y. Lin, W. S. Tseng and E. K. Yeh (Eds.), Chinese Societies and Mental Health (pp. 19-39). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
[1] Amabile, T. M. (1988). A model of creativity and innovation in organizations. In B. M. Staw and L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (pp. 123-167). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. [2] Antonioni, D. (1998). Relationship between the Big Five personality factors and conflict management styles. International Journal of Conflict Management, 9, 336-355. doi:10.1108/eb022814 [3] Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unravelling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [4] Barki, H., & Hartwick, J. (2004). Conceptualizing the construct of interpersonal conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 15, 216-244. doi:10.1108/eb022913 [5] Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x [6] Blake, R. R., & Moutin, J. S. (1964). The managerial grid. Houston, TX: Gulf. [7] Bernardin, H. J., & Beatty, R. W. (1984). Performance appraisal: Assessing human behavior at work. Boston: Kent. [8] Chinese Culture Connection (1987). Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 143-164. doi:10.1177/0022002187018002002 [9] Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155- 159. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 [10] Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18, 76-82. doi:10.1002/da.10113 [11] Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO personality inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. [12] Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO-PI-R professional inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. [13] Day, R. C., & Hamblin, R. L. (1964). Some effects of close and punitive styles of supervision. The American Journal of Sociology, 69, 499-510. doi:10.1086/223653 [14] Gao, J. H. & Taormina, R. J. (2002). Performance appraisal in Zhuhai and Macao. Proceedings of the 7th International Human Resource Management Conference. Limerick. [15] Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). Perceived control of anxiety and its relationship to self-confidence and performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73, 87-97. [16] Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley. doi:10.1037/10628-000 [17] Hirschfeld, R. M. A., Klerman, G. L., Gough, H. G., Barrett, J., Korchin, S. J., & Chodoff, P. (1977). A measure of interpersonal dependency. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41, 610-618. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4106_6 [18] Hofstee, W. K., de Raad, B., & Goldberg, L. R. (1992). Integration of the Big Five and circumplex approaches to trait structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 146-163. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.1.146 [19] Hwang, K. K. (1987). Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 944-974. doi:10.1086/228588 [20] Jacelon, C. S. (1997). The trait and process of resilience. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 123-129. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.1997025123.x [21] Kirkbride, P. S., Tang, S. F., & Westwood, R. I. (1991). Chinese conflict preferences and negotiating behavior: Cultural and psychological influences. Organization Studies, 12, 365-386. doi:10.1177/017084069101200302 [22] Kolb, J. A. (1999). The effect of gender role, attitude toward leadership and self-confidence on leader emergence: Implications for leadership development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10, 305- 320. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920100403 [23] Lane, A. M., Sewell, D. F., Terry, P. C., Bartram, D., & Nesti, M. S. (1999). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. Journal of Sports Science, 17, 505-512. doi:10.1080/026404199365812 [24] Lang, A., Goulet, C., & Amsel, R. (2003). Lang and Goulet hardiness scale: Development and testing on bereaved parents following the death of their fetus/infant. Death Studies, 27, 851-880. doi:10.1080/716100345 [25] Lee, D. M. S. (1986) Academic achievement, task characteristics, and first job performance of young engineers. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, EM-33, 127-133. [26] Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO personality inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 329-358. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3902_8 [27] Liu, J., Fu, P., & Liu, S. (2009). Conflicts in top management teams and team/firm outcomes: The moderating effects of conflict-handling approaches. International Journal of Conflict Management, 20, 228- 250. doi:10.1108/10444060910974867 [28] Lu, L., Kao, S. F., Siu, O. L., & Lu, C. Q. (2010). Work stressors, Chinese coping strategies, and job performance in Greater China. International Journal of Psychology, 45, 294-302. doi:10.1080/00207591003682027 [29] Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. doi:10.1037/h0054346 [30] Maslow, A. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. Oxford: Viking. [31] Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley. [32] Maxham, J. G., Netemeyer, R. G., & Lichtenstein, D. R. (2008). The retail value chain: Linking employee perceptions to employee performance, customer evaluations, and store performance. Marketing Science, 27, 147-167. doi:10.1287/mksc.1070.0282 [33] McCarty, P. A. (1986). Effects of feedback on the self-confidence of men and women. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 840-847. doi:10.2307/255950 [34] Merriam-Webster Dictionary (nd). http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ [35] Oldham G. R., & Cummings, A. (1996). Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 607-634. doi:10.2307/256657 [36] Oxford English Dictionary (nd). [37] http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/163619 [38] Parker, G., Cowen, E., Work, W., & Wyman, P. (1990). Test correlates of stress resilience among urban school children. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 11, 19-35. doi:10.1007/BF01324859 [39] Paul, R. J. (1967). Increasing the work efficiency of the service employee. Journal of Small Business Management, 5, 9-13. [40] Pierce, J. L., & Gardner, D. G. (2004). Self-esteem within the work and organizational context: A review of the organization-based self-esteem literature. Journal of Management, 30, 591-622. doi:10.1016/j.jm.2003.10.001 [41] Rahim, M. A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 368-376. doi:10.2307/255985 [42] Rahim, M. A., Magner, N. R., & Shapiro, D. L. (2000). Do justice perceptions influence styles of handling conflict with supervisors? What justice perceptions, precisely? International Journal of Conflict Management, 11, 9-31. doi:10.1108/eb022833 [43] Rasulzada, F., & Dackert, I. (2009). Organizational creativity and innovation in relation to psychological well-being and organizational factors. Creativity Research Journal, 21, 191-198. doi:10.1080/10400410902855283 [44] Reio, T. G., & Wiswell, A. (2000). Field investigation of the relationship among adult curiosity, workplace learning, and job performance. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11, 5-30. doi:10.1002/1532-1096(200021)11:1<5::AID-HRDQ2>3.0.CO;2-A [45] Simonton, D. K. (1986). Presidential personality: Biographical use of the Gough Adjective Check List. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 149-160. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.149 [46] Taormina, R. J. (1997). Organizational Socialization: A multidomain, continuous process model. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 5, 29-47. doi:10.1111/1468-2389.00043 [47] Taormina, R. J. (2004). Convergent validation of two measures of organizational socialization. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15, 76-94. doi:10.1080/0958519032000157357 [48] Taormina, R. J. & Gao, J. H. (2009). Identifying acceptable performance appraisal criteria: An international perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 47, 102-125. doi:10.1177/1038411108099292 [49] Taormina, R. J. & Gao, J. H. (2010). A research model for guanxi behavior: Antecedents, measures, and outcomes of Chinese social networking. Social Science Research, 39, 1195-1212. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.07.003 [50] Taylor, F. W. (1911). The principles of scientific management. New York: Harper Bros. [51] Williams, S. (2001). Increasing employees’ creativity by training their managers. Industrial and Commercial Training, 33, 63-68. doi:10.1108/00197850110385642 [52] Wolf, J. R. (1989). Human resource management. Psychiatric Annals, 19, 432-434. [53] Yang, K. S. (1995). Chinese social orientation: An integrative analysis. In T. Y. Lin, W. S. Tseng and E. K. Yeh (Eds.), Chinese Societies and Mental Health (pp. 19-39). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.