Aminul Islam Chowdhury¹, Ravneet Kaur², Anonya Akuley-Amenyenu², Abua Ikem³, Sam O. Dennis^2*

Show more
¹ Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh.
² Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN, USA.
³ Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Lincoln University, Jefferson City, MO, USA.
Show less

Abstract: A total of 37 elements were determined in tap and bottled water samples from six counties of Middle Tennessee (USA) by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES). The overarching goal of the study is to dispel the myth that bottled water is better than tap water or vice versa. Other parameters analyzed were pH, conductivity, and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). The results were compared with the Maximum Contaminant Limit (MCL) reported by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA). The concentrations of phosphorus, silicon, fluoride, and chloride conformed to the established values by US-EPA maximum contaminant level corresponding value. The level of Aluminum (Al), Boron (B), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Lithium (Li), Manganese (Mn), Nickel (Ni), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), and Zinc (Zn) conformed to the established values by governmental agencies (USEPA). Heavy metals such as Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), and Silver (Ag) were detected in the tap water of the urban (Davidson) and urbanizing (Rutherford and Williamson) counties; suggesting that rural counties had a less heavy metal concentration in their drinking water sources than urban counties (P < 0.05). However, the values were below the Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs).

Keywords: Heavy Metals, Fluoride, ICP-OES, Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Cluster Analysis

Cite this paper: Chowdhury, A. , Kaur, R. , Akuley-Amenyenu, A. , Ikem, A. and Dennis, S. (2021) Spectrochemical Analysis of Bottled and Tap Water from Selected Counties of Middle Tennessee, USA. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 13, 20-31. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2021.131002.

References

[1]   Ikem, A., Odueyungbo, S., Egiebor, N.O. and Nyavor, K. (2002) Chemical Quality of Bottled Waters from Three Cities in Eastern Alabama. The Science of the Total Environment, 285, 165-175.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(01)00915-9

[2]   Duan, W., Chen, G., Chen, C., Sanghvi, R., Iddya, A., Walker, S., et al. (2017) Electrochemical Removal of Hexavalent Chromium Using Electrically Conducting Carbon Nanotube/Polymer Composite Ultrafiltration Membranes. Journal of Membrane Science, 531, 160-171.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2017.02.050

[3]   Roh, T., Lynch, C.F., Weyer, P., Wang, K., Kelly, K.M. and Ludewig, G. (2017) Low-level Arsenic Exposure from Drinking Water Is Associated with Prostate Cancer in Iowa. Environmental Research, 159, 338-343.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.026

[4]   IARC (2009) Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. International Agency of Research on Cancer, 100C-6.

[5]   Erickson, M.L. and Barnes, R.J. (2005) Glacial Sediment Causing Regional-Scale Elevated Arsenic in Drinking Water. Ground Water, 43, 796-805.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2005.00053.x

[6]   Michael, H.A. (2013) An Arsenic Forecast for China. Science, 341, 852-853.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1242212

[7]   USEPA (2017) National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.
https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations

[8]   Morr, S., Cuartas, E., Alwattar, B. and Lane, J.M. (2006) How Much Calcium Is in your Drinking Water? A Survey of Calcium Concentrations in Bottled and Tap water and Their Significance for Medical Treatment and Drug Administration. HSS Journal, 2, 130-135.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11420-006-9000-9

[9]   Samek, K. (2004) Unknown Quantity: The Bottled Water Industry and Florida’s Springs. Journal of Land Use, 19, 569-595.

[10]   Olson, E. D. (1999) Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype? National Resources Defense Council.
https://www.nrdc.org/resources/bottled-water-pure-drink-or-pure-hype

[11]   Postman, A. (2016) Lots of People Think Drinking Bottled Water Is Safer. Is It? The Truth about Tap. National Resource Defense Council.
https://www.nrdc.org/stories/truth-about-tap

[12]   Doria, M.F. (2010) Factors Influencing Public Perception of Drinking Water Quality. Water Policy, 12, 1-19.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.051

[13]   Korn, M.G.A., de Andrade, J.B., de Jesus, D.S., Lemos, V.A., Bandeira, M.L.S.F., dos Santos, W.N.L., Bezerra, M.A., Amorim, F.A.C., Souza, A.S. and Ferreira, S.L.C. (2006) Separation and Preconcentration Procedures for the Determination of Lead Using Spectrometric Techniques: A Review. Talanta, 69, 16-24.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2005.10.043

[14]   Fang, Z.L. (1995) Flow Injection Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.

[15]   ICP-OES/ICP-AES Principle.
https://www.spectro.com/icp-oes-principle

[16]   US Census Bureau (2012).
https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/guidance/comparing-acs-data/2012.html

[17]   SAS Institute Inc. (2003) SAS?. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.